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Stromboli or Russian roulette tourism

Rémy Knafou
Traduction de Artha translation
Cet article est une traduction de :
Stromboli ou le tourisme roulette russe [fr]
Autre(s) traduction(s) de cet article :
Stromboli, una roulette russa turistica [it]

Résumé

Stromboli is one of the most active volcanoes on the planet; it has also become a tourist hotspot for just over half a century.
The recent eruptive paroxysms of summer 2019 have spectacularly highlighted this paradoxical situation because, for the first time in its history, this paroxysm occurred during the tourist season. A quite happy combinations of circumstances made possible to avoid a balance which could have been catastrophic, but it also revealed the limits of the Aeolian tourism system which has partly built its international notoriety on the volcanic attraction.
This article therefore questions the relationship between the unpredictability of a potentially fatal, but very exceptional risk, and the management of an intense tourist frequentation during the season, little or not informed about the reality of the risks.

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Texte intégral

1.

  • 1 Stylists and entrepreneurs Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana put their house in Stromboli up for s (...)

"Era come essere all'inferno, con una pioggia di fuoco che cadeva dal cielo"
[It was like being in hell, with a rain of fire falling from the sky],
Don Giovanni Longo, priest of the parish of Stromboli, 3 July 2019.
"Non fuggiamo, ma ci trasferiamo soltanto nella più tranquilla e contemplativa Salina…"
[We're not running away, we're just moving to the more peaceful and contemplative Salina],
Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana, Corriere della Sera, 23 July 20191

  • 2 The approximation comes from the fact that the data are available only on the scale of the municipa (...)
  • 3 This article was written three months before the deadly irruption (21 dead) of White Island vulcano (...)

2Isola di Stromboli is an Italian volcanic island of 12.6 km2, populated by around 570 inhabitants2 (2001), part of the Aeolian Islands located north of Sicily and south of Naples, in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Stromboli volcano, "the lighthouse of the Mediterranean", has the characteristic, unique in Europe, of having had continuous eruptive activity for at least 2,500 years (Fig.1). The inhabitants of the island call it Struògnoli in the Sicilian dialect or refer to Iddù ("Him") to designate the volcano with which they must coexist and deal with, since its rhythm and events are totally beyond human control. Since the second half of the 20th century, tourism has gradually become the main business activity. How did one of the most active volcanoes on the planet manage to become a tourist hotspot?3

Fig.1. Stromboli seen from Panarea, September 2019

Fig.1. Stromboli seen from Panarea, September 2019

© R. Knafou

I. The paroxysmal episode of July-August 2019

3On 3 July 2019, according to the Italian National Institute of Geophysics (INVG), two strong explosions occurred at around 4:46 p.m., preceded by lava flows "from all active vents", ejecting a four-kilometre high eruption column, while two pyroclastic flows descended at very high speed down the Sciara del Fuoco and advanced about 1 km into the sea.

4On the western flank of the volcano, above Ginostra (see the sketch of Stromboli island), a Sicilian hiker was killed. The Brazilian hiker accompanying him was injured. In this assessment, the international press has, for the most part, overlooked another victim. A donkey, Camilla, was one of those who transported goods to Ginostra.

Sketch of Stromboli island

Sketch of Stromboli island

5On the other side of the volcano, at the foot of the church of San Vincenzo, at the time of the explosion, about a hundred tourists should have been gathered at the same time to begin – as is done every day in season, when there is no official ban linked to volcano activity deemed to be dangerous – their ascent to the top of the island, from where the craters' terrace can be seen from about 200 m above sea level; but, for fortuitous reasons, no ascent was planned that day.

6Very quickly, the gigantic cloud overhung the inhabitants and tourists (Fig.2); ashes descended all around them, sprays of lapilli set fire to the reed area 300 m above them. In a few moments, panic spread to part of the population and to tourists. Several of them had the misguided reaction of throwing themselves into the sea, ignoring the risk of a tsunami following the possible collapses on the Sciara del Fuoco, while others took refuge in the church which is located high up. A Canadair was mobilised to extinguish the fires started on the heights by the incandescent lapilli. Although the authorities were quick to announce that there was no need to evacuate the population, many tourists requested to leave the island. The press reported hasty departures of tourists who were staying in Ginostra and fled to Milazzo without money, identity papers and luggage. In total, more than 1,000 people were evacuated to Calabria, using 5 boats.

Fig. 2. The eruption of 3 June 2019, aerial shot with the village of Ginostra in the foreground.

Fig. 2. The eruption of 3 June 2019, aerial shot with the village of Ginostra in the foreground.

Press.

  • 4 The Sciara del Fuoco – "sciara", a Sicilian term derived from Arabic (sara: barren land); it can th (...)

7This paroxysm occurred in a cloudless sky, with no other warning signs than a strong explosion on the night of 25 June and, a quarter of an hour earlier, a medium-size explosion such as those Stromboli produces year-round which caused an initial overflow of lava in the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco4 (Fig.3). Only three minutes before the major eruption, an overflow of lava occurred through all the active vents inside the crater terrace, but was not visible from the inhabited areas.

  • 5 Volcanic earthquake caused by the upwelling of magma.

8After this very impressive episode, the volcanic activity remained very vigorous (degassing high in the sky, sprays of ash and lapilli, outpourings of lava), but without a new paroxysm for almost two months, until 28 August, at 10:17 am, a new explosion of very high intensity released a plume more than 2 km high, as well as a pyroclastic flow that suddenly descended along the Sciara, which finished its race at sea at a short distance from a sailboat that filmed its life-threatening arrival (Fig. 4). At the same time, as in the paroxysm of 3 July, a sudden increase in the mean amplitude of the5 tremor was observed, as well as a 30-centimetre tsunami wave.

9Finally, on 29 August, at 8:43 pm, there was another big explosion, accompanied by a very high sound pressure; followed, an hour later, by a second loud explosion. The intense degassing activity and splashes of molten lava gradually decreased and stopped the next morning, around 6 am. In the days that followed, all monitored parameters were stable between high and very high values, but no further very loud explosions occurred and the paroxysm of July-August 2019 was considered to have ended.

Fig. 3. La Sciara del Fuoco, seen from the sea, September 2014.

Fig. 3. La Sciara del Fuoco, seen from the sea, September 2014.

© R. Knafou

Fig. 4. The fiery cloud of June 3, photographed from a German aircraft, fortunately in a lateral position.

Fig. 4. The fiery cloud of June 3, photographed from a German aircraft, fortunately in a lateral position.

B. Behncke, 2019.

10During these two months, the authorities, walking on eggs, played a score in mezza voce. Because it was not easy to reassure those who were already there, and not worry those who had planned to come, while providing information about the risks so as not to inconsiderately expose them to the anger of "Iddu". In this respect, the statements made by the experts of the INGV (Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology) on 29 August, after the second great eruption, are well representative of the difficulties to be faced as they had to, at the same time, evoke the possible occurrence of a major tsunami6 in the event of a collapse of the Sciara del Fucoco, while reminding people of the quality of the landscape: "the island is beautiful, let's take advantage of it, but let's always keep in mind that there is a volcanic risk to be taken into account"7.

  • 8 https://palermo.repubblica.it/cronaca/2019/07/10/news/stromboli_false_notizie_su_rischio_tsunami_gl (...)

11In a statement on 10 July, the mayor of Lipari wished to reassure inhabitants and tourists alike, not without contortions: "Every day, we meet with the civil defence. There are no restrictions on access to the island which has returned to normal with regard to services. Stromboli deserves to find a way back to normality, with the necessary vigilance"8 (Fig. 4 bis).

Fig. 4 bis. The Coast Guard enforces a no-navigation maritime zone, one nautical mile from the August 28 explosion area. September 2019

Fig. 4 bis. The Coast Guard enforces a no-navigation maritime zone, one nautical mile from the August 28 explosion area. September 2019

© R. Knafou

12For the first time in the history of Stromboli, the eruptive paroxysm occurred in the middle of the tourist season, the two major explosions occurring in early July and late August. For the first time, a visitor was killed, tourists narrowly escaped, while many others, at sea, or on the neighbouring island of Panarea, filmed the spectacle and posted it on YouTube and Instagram.

13As of 4 July, the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs advised tourists to "refrain from going to the island immediately" (“Advice to travellers” section).

14The episode also brought to light the shortcomings of the information system for tourists arriving on an island exposed to both volcanic eruptions and tsunamis. Indeed, when they disembark on the island, no information is offered to tourists, in regards to necessary precautions or the risks of sudden explosions and tsunamis.

15We will refrain from blaming here the disorganisation that resulted from the 3 July explosion, because the occurrence of comparable episodes, wherever they are in the world, never shows optimally managed situations. But it must be said that the lack of prior information, of instructions to be respected in case of paroxysm, was so severe that in Ginostra, the inhabitants themselves did not know what to do and where to go. All the more so as the infrastructure does not allow quick evacuation of the population present during the high tourist season, when permanent residents, visiting tourists and day-trippers who come for a few hours combine.

16However, there is no shortage of contingency plans, with each recent paroxysm having resulted in them being updated.

II. Strombolian paroxysms

17The paroxysmal episode of July-August 2019 was not without precedent.

  • 9 See Antonella Bertagnini & Alessio Di Roberto & Massimo Pompilio. Bull Volcanol, 2011, Paroxysmal a (...)

18Recent paleomagnetic studies have shown that the Strombolian paroxysms fall into at least two groups: between 1300 and 1600 AD and between 1900 and the present; and, among them, two major events, capable of ejecting deposits at lower altitudes and near inhabited areas, have occurred over the last five centuries9.

  • 10 A "strana tempestà" (a "strange storm"), he wrote in a letter, the reading of which constituted the (...)

19Stromboli is referred to as an "active" volcano because the magma channel is constantly open, in direct communication with the magma chamber. It experiences three types of explosions. Those of low intensity, every five to fifteen minutes, which are referred to as "tourist" explosions because they are both impressive to see from the edge of the pit crater, and usually harmless. Those of medium intensity, more violent but with an identical mechanism and a very irregular rhythm. Finally, violent eruptions, which occur when, despite the opening of the duct, there is a very strong accumulation of gas and lava in the magma chamber; they are therefore characterised by an impressive explosiveness, a column of gas several kilometres high, lava outpourings and various other events depending on the episode: the appearance of new vents or fissures, the expulsion of a pyroclastic flow, ejection of boulders over a vast perimeter. They may be followed by the collapse of some of the accumulated material (Sciara del Fuoco), triggering tsunami waves of varying heights. Thus, at the end of 1343, Petrarch, the papal ambassador in Naples, reportedly witnessed a tsunami10 that devastated the port of Naples, but also that of Amalfi. According to this very recent discovery (January 2019), the tsunami was due to the collapse of part of the volcano, and would explain why the island of Stromboli, inhabited since the Neolithic period, was deserted from the middle of the 14th century to the end of the 16th century. That the island was abandoned, despite its attractiveness for agriculture and for the naval traffic of the Crusaders coming from the Italian, Spanish and Greek coasts, speaks volumes for the magnitude of the event of 1343 and the extreme potential danger of the volcano.

20Since our aim is not to provide a history of all the Stromboli events, after this necessary medieval parenthesis, we will only evoke the paroxysms that have occurred over the last century, documented without the use of carbon 14.

21In the 21st century, other important episodes had already taken place: on 30 December 2002, thanks to a deep recess, an underwater part of the Sciara del Fuoco collapsed (ten million cubic metres slipped into it while 30 to 40 million would have disappeared into the depths of the volcano), generating two large tsunami waves, a few seconds apart, with an estimated height of 8 metres in the Piscitá sector and lower elsewhere. The shock wave at sea spread to Panarea, where 5 boats were damaged, and as far as the coast of Sicily, in Milazzo, where an oil tanker broke its moorings. In Stromboli, 6 people were injured and the island was temporarily deprived of electricity and drinking water.

  • 11 Details taken from: Paroxysmal activity at Stromboli: lessons from the past/Antonella Bertagnini & (...)

22The paroxysm of 5 April 2003, the most violent since 1930, consisted of several explosions starting at 9:12 am and lasting 373 seconds11. During the main phase, multiple jets, comprising main boulders with ash trails, fed a convection column up to 4 km high. Boulders the size of one metre were thrown up to 1,400 m above the craters and fell on the sides of the volcano and on the village of Ginostra, about 2 km away, smashing a house and a cistern. Other bombs fell in the vegetation which started to burn, but also near the port and at sea. This paroxysm came to close a phase of great volcanic activity which had started on 28 December 2002, with the appearance of lava flows coming from fissures at the base of two craters, followed by a large landslide in the Sciara del Fuoco triggering a tsunami that hit the coast of Stromboli, the rest of the Aeolian islands, then the north coast of Sicily. The effusive phase did not end until 21 July.

  • 12 In December 2002, the tsunami took 5 minutes to reach Panarea and ¾ an hour to reach Filicudi or Mo (...)

23This very striking double episode in 2002-2003 led to the setting up of a tsunami warning system with a siren in Stromboli as well as in nearby Panarea12.

24On 15 March 2007, at 9:37 pm, a loud explosion occurred, followed by the appearance of an eruption column 2-3 km in height, then of two lava fountains of decreasing intensity and height.

25The explosion was the result of a blockage that had obstructed the duct following collapses due to a series of events that had begun a month earlier, including the opening of three new vents. Fearing a tsunami like the one in 2003 or even worse, the 2002 tsunami, the authorities asked the inhabitants and tourists of Stromboli, Panarea and Lipari to head for areas at least ten metres above sea level.

26The paroxysms of the 20th century were even more devastating. In 1916, and again in 1919, boulders weighing several tonnes destroyed houses in Ginostra and also in San Bartolo (the upper part of Piscitá).

27But the most devastating paroxysm in the documented history of Stromboli was that of 11 September 1930, which occurred when activity in the preceding months had been normal. It began with a series of heavy ash emissions at 8:10 am, but only for about ten minutes. At 9:52 am, two extremely powerful explosions threw boulders, some of which had a volume of more than 10 m3, towards the southwest of the island but also towards the north, destroying 14 houses in Ginostra and seriously damaging the Labronzo observatory building. Following this, the volcano expelled for 40 minutes large quantities of incandescent slag covering a large area around the summit. Due to the rapid accumulation on the steep slopes, the discarded material, still hot, began to slide out of the Sciara del Fuoco, on the northeast flank of the volcano, towards the farthest part of the craters and the most inhabited part of the island. The most deadly event was a pyroclastic flow that rose from a fissure vent in the volcano and descended into the steep valley of Vallonazzo, descending towards the sea at a speed of 20 metres per second and with a temperature of 700°C13 in a few moments it burned crops, vineyards, houses and some of their occupants (the bodies of Maria Famularo and her daughter, embraced in the instinct to protect each other, were found). In the waters in front of San Vincenzo, a fisherman aboard his boat died (a pyroclastic flow or a boulder weighing more than 150 kg?), as did two other people who were also at sea. As a result of these various events, a 2-metre-high tsunami added to the destruction, causing the death of a sixth person. In addition to the 6 killed, 21 people were injured, and many houses were destroyed or damaged.

  • 14 F. Famularo, 2008, "...e poi Stromboli", Edizioni Strombolibri, Pomezia, 221 p.

28In the first of the many books he devoted to Stromboli14, Fabio Famularo, reconstructing the memories of his grandfather, describes the experience that was so traumatic for the population: the explosions, the eruptions, the escape into the sea with boats, the sorrowful return to the beach in the evening and the houses with "a strong smell of burning and sulphur" [pp. 127-132]. On page 134, he gives a good account both of the gravity of the damage and of the strange kind of tranquillity which reigned after the sudden volcanic event: "At dawn, we woke up and once outside we found ourselves in front of a dramatically transformed island, reduced for the most part to a vast and desolate scorched earth. It was incredible to see the volcano appear calm and serene, as if it had not been the cause of the disaster. It was smoking, the same as always, as if to apologise and to invite us to have faith in it. The population was frightened and deeply shaken."

29The paroxysm of 1930 was not only important in terms of its unparalleled scale in contemporary times, its deaths and destruction, it was also an accelerator of the exodus of the Strombolian population.

30The island's population had peaked in 1891, with 2716 inhabitants; in 1911, there were still 2500 inhabitants, and there is no doubt that in a context of population growth on an island with limited resources, the great eruption of 1919 was a factor triggering mass departures. In 1931, the population had fallen to 1,100 people and to 659 in 1951, while tourism was still almost nonexistent. The minimum was reached in 1971 with only 400 inhabitants.

31Stromboli recorded by far the highest desertion rate of the Aeolian Islands: the population in the 1951 census was only 26.50% of that of 1910, compared to 69.4% in Salina, 41.2% in Filicudi 41.24%, 40.7% in Alicudi where agricultural conditions are the most constraining, 90.4% in Lipari (on the other hand Vulcano, the closest to Sicily and the first to be affected by tourism, experienced an increase of 151.3%). These data confirm that the disasters have weighed heavily on the growth of the population, the majority of which has chosen to leave for its island, and to move as far away as possible from the volcano: Strombolian citizens have dispersed to the United States, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand...

32In 2001, the population of Stromboli had increased, thanks to the arrival of newcomers as part of the development of tourist activity, to 571 inhabitants.

33To the paroxysms of 1919, 1930, 2002, 2003, 2007 and 2019, we can add other important events, accompanied by lava flows, which took place in 1945, 1954-1955, 1966-1967, 1971, 1975, 1985-1986, 2010, 2013 and 2014.

34From the evocation of the previous paroxysms, we can draw two major lessons, for the permanent or temporary inhabitants of the island as well as for the rest of our discussion.

  • 15 The monitoring network of the volcano, regularly extended over the years and following major erupti (...)

35The first is the very condition of the "Strombolian paradox": the sudden events of Iddu were unpredictable and remain so today, as the last episode in the summer of 2019 reminded us. Even though the volcano may be laden with sensors15 and webcams and flown over by drones, it can explode without any real warning.

  • 16 See Antonella Bertagnini, Alessio Di Roberto, Massimo Pompilio, 2011, "Attività parossistica a Stro (...)

36The second lesson is that on at least two occasions, the paroxysms reached the low areas in the north-east of the island16, i.e. the area inhabited by the Stromboli inhabitants and tourists.

37Since knowledge of the history of volcanic eruptions is much more reliable than the current ability to predict future eruptions, it is therefore necessary to deal with the possibility, albeit of very low frequency – but, in this case, once will be enough – of the sudden occurrence of a deadly event, since we know that inhabited areas are not immune to such eruptions.

III. The Strombolian paradox

38This paradox is easy to describe: the great eruptions of Stromboli both helped to drive away the long-established population of the island and, in combination with forgetfulness, ignorance and carelessness, attracted tourists as well as those who make a living from it. As a result, one of the world's most active volcanoes has become a tourist hotspot that regularly draws the world's attention to the Aeolian archipelago.

39It should be noted that the tourist attraction, its inhabitants and its tourists have been very lucky so far: paroxysmal explosions are never been produced under the noses of tourists who come to contemplate, at dusk, the active craters; there have been no pyroclastic flows in the tourist era (except those at sea, without causing casualties, on 3 July and 28 August 2019). And if the last paroxysm occurred during the high tourist season, fortunate circumstances allowed us to only mourn one human and one animal victim.

A. The impossibility of risk management

  • 17 "We've now got five minutes to take cover, instead of the 20 seconds we had before",says the guide (...)

40Nonetheless, the Aeolian tourist system relies heavily on the attraction of Stromboli, especially since, in good weather, the plume that constantly crowns the volcano can be seen from all the other islands except Alicudi. The operation of this system therefore involves the tourist taking a risk because, as we have seen, Stromboli is a dangerous volcano, the danger in volcanology being however a probabilistic concept (the probability that a dangerous event will occur in an indeterminate time). When you want to climb to the top of the island, the guide usually reminds you of the potential danger, and avoids taking on clients who are not only unable to climb at a good pace but also unable to react quickly if necessary17. It is therefore at the cost of this risk-taking that the system works, the problem being that the tourist is not informed of the nature of this risk. On arrival on the island, they receive no information on what to do in case of danger and the general tourist communication on the Stromboli is silent about the potential risk. Only the very observant tourist will notice the signs indicating the tsunami risk and the assembly areas. Finally, the only information on the risks incurred is given to those who are preparing to climb to the summit, in application of the regulations established only in 2007, at a time when a paroxysm had rekindled awareness.

41The management of this very particular risk – potentially fatal but of such low occurrence that it is statistically more dangerous to take a plane, and even more so to drive there, than to stay at the foot of the volcano – is primarily the responsibility of the public authorities, within which it is important to differentiate between the actors. The INGV scientists who monitor this volcano, as well as others in southern Italy, do their job, both in terms of daily monitoring and periodic reports on the state of knowledge. They make the information at their disposal available to everyone. The problem is, you have to know about this information, read it, understand it. The recent episode in the summer of 2019, which received a lot of media coverage, allowed the scientists to express themselves through numerous interviews, i.e. to engage in an uncomfortable exercise: combining the inability to predict, the in-depth knowledge of mechanisms such as previous phases, and the concern not to harm economic interests.

  • 18 In addition, it is specified that vessels disembarking more than 40 passengers at Stromboli must ha (...)

42Likewise, the elected local authorities did not have an easy task, again due to the unpredictability of the potentially deadly episodes. For Stromboli, applying the precautionary principle is impossible because it would amount to banning any person from frequenting the island, and outlawing any permanent settlement, with the likely possibility that in the end, nothing devastating would happen for decades, even centuries – a hypothesis that is untenable both from a human and a political point of view. Elected officials are therefore referred to pragmatic policies that are more or less similar to those of the mayor of Amity Island in "Jaws" (Steven Spielberg, 1975), who prefers to run the risk of a shark attack rather than sacrifice the early tourist season. An ordinance of the Mayor of Lipari, published on 2 September 2019, is representative of this narrow approach, which seeks to reconcile economic interests and, henceforth, to take better account of the potential danger: while it once again authorises disembarkation for all boats making day trips to Stromboli (forbidden since the paroxysms of summer)18, it prohibits the ascent to the volcano beyond an elevation of 290 m (on the edge of the Sciara del Fuoco) and, on the Ginostra side, the possibility of going beyond Punta Corvo, where a hiker died on 3 July.

  • 19 There is the possibility of emitting three different types of acoustic signals (alert, evacuation, (...)

43The last "National Emergency Plan for the Island of Stromboli" (2015) transferred the management of emergency situations to the Municipality of Lipari, in connection with the Stromboli Advanced Operational Centre, the radio communication network used for local emergency communications and the acoustic warning system enabling the municipal administration to broadcast messages and alert the population present on the island in the event of predictable disasters19. Developed after the major lava flows of 2014, this document also envisaged "a procedure for the partial or total evacuation of the population of the island of Stromboli". To this end, it listed the evacuation infrastructure (3 jetties and 6 heliports, at least 2 of which are at sea level and subject to a possible tsunami) as well as the emergency telecommunication network.

44Several levels of alert have been distinguished (p. 15). Explosive activities, including paroxysmal ones, are only classed at the local level, the national alert level (with events occurring hundreds or thousands of year apart) being the partial or total collapse of the Sciara del Fuoco as well as effusive activity external to the Sciara (Fig. 5):

Fig. 5. Local and national level scenarios.

Fig. 5. Local and national level scenarios.

Protezione civile, Isola di Stromboli, Piano nazionale di emergenza a fronte di eventi vulcanici di rilevanza nazionale, August 2015

45It should be noted that this classification was established as if humans were only living in their residential areas and not visiting the immediate vicinity of the craters (tourists and their guides).

46It should also be noted that it was not until the paroxysms of the beginning of the 21st century that the arrangements for assistance and evacuation of the population were systematised according to the different types of risk, even though information on the seriousness of the paroxysms of the previous century, and therefore the risks involved, was available.

47Finally, it should be noted that, de facto – and not without realism – this plan places the most serious and also the most unpredictable events outside its field of action: "Specific strategies have not been developed for future scenarios of national scope, which are certainly possible, but considered rare because they occur on a time scale of several hundred years or even millennia, such as the total collapse of the Sciara del Fuoco slope, or the opening of eruptive vents outside the Sciara del Fuoco, with the formation of flows that could affect anthropised areas. In fact, for the last two types of events, and also for tsunamis resulting from sudden phenomena announced shortly before their occurrence [...], the operational measures planned [...] may be adopted [...] with particular attention to safety and relief actions for the population." (p. 3).

48The territorial management system therefore makes a probabilistic calculation – which has so far been successful – to offset some of the risk, and when a paroxysm occurs, as in the summer of 2019, it takes the brunt of the negative publicity caused by the worldwide dissemination of impressive images and the increasing number of cancellations of reservations (including to neighbouring islands), where there was no danger, except for the tsunami), and can only rely on the tourists' ability to forget and their resilience, as well as on the Stromboli residents' desire, conscious or unconscious, to erase the most painful episodes from their memory, a condition that is probably necessary to continue to live "on a cone filled with magma whose base lies 2,000 metres below the surface of the water"20.

B. The tourism development of the Aeolian Islands

49Tourism interest in the Aeolian Archipelago was not sparked until after the Second World War, and the growing fascination in volcanism played a leading role.

  • 21 It was based on the principle of "A film on the screen, the director on the stage," inviting explor (...)
  • 22 Back in the spotlight since its eruption in March 1944 (the volcano had been inactive since 1929).
  • 23 All this information comes from: C. Cavallaro, 1976, "Evoluzione e prospettive della regione turist (...)

50In 1949, the volcanologist Haroun Tazieff had shown in France and Belgium a film shot in Stromboli and Vulcano, in particular with the Parisian association "Connaissance du monde". This association, founded in 194521, which was looking for new places to propose to its members, chose to organise in 1949 visits to Italian volcanoes, with the programme of the "volcanoes cruise", which included Vesuvius22, Etna, then those of the Aeolian Islands. For the latter, the scarcity of accommodation posed a formidable problem: in fact, the archipelago had only three "hotels" (in Lipari, Salina and Stromboli) and 35 beds23. Vulcano, the closest to Sicily, was chosen as a base for excursions to the other islands, but as there was no accommodation, it was necessary to set up a camp on rented land. In Stromboli, in addition to the foundation of the present Hotel Miramare, the organisers enlisted the help of the parish priest of San Vincenzo, who was convinced of the interest of the initiative and had precise knowledge of the accommodations that had become available after the emigration of their inhabitants. The next step was to convince the inhabitants that there could be a future for their island, which was not easy.

51In the end, each island found its own pioneer who believed in tourism as a solution to revitalisation and knew how to get things moving. So efficiently that by 1954, the number of hotels had risen from 3 to 17 and the number of beds from 35 to 150: these were still very traditional facilities. That same year, the hotels registered 11,424 visitors, to which were added approximately 5,000 people in private accommodation. Carmelo Cavallaro notes that, from 1950 to 1958, the tourist traffic – almost exclusively thanks to "Connaissance du Monde" – was mainly made up of foreigners from France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Interest in active volcanism being predominant, Vulcano and Stromboli attracted the most. This was also the case for the beginnings of Italian tourism in these islands, on the initiative of Sicilian student organisations. Lipari began to play the role of transit corridor for the groups and the other islands remained on the sidelines, with the exception of Panarea, which started to be visited by groups from Lombardy.

  • 24 See Elena Di Blasi, Alessandro Arangio, 2016.

52Thus, at the end of the 1950s, volcanism and cinema, with the competing films of Rossellini on Stromboli and Magnani on Vulcano, released the same year (1950), allowed these islands to open up to a new era24 (Fig. 6 e 7).

Fig. 6 & 7. Advertising posters for two competing films made in the same year (spring 1949) and released in 1950.

Fig. 6 & 7. Advertising posters for two competing films made in the same year (spring 1949) and released in 1950.

Web.

53The abandonment of houses, the initiatives of a few pioneers, the changes in lifestyles brought about by the presence of foreigners, as well as the money sent home by emigrants, initiated the process.

54After the pioneering phase, which was more oriented towards the search for naturalness and a certain interest in local culture, the 1960s were conducive to the appropriation and urbanisation of islands which, until then very poorly served, were beginning to be opened up by the summer operation of hydrofoils: new hotels, larger than those of the previous generation, and increasing purchases, mainly from abroad, of ruined houses and building land, particularly in Vulcano and Vulcanello, where speculation was rampant. A slow but inexorable and uncontrolled process.

55In 1964, there were 42 hotel establishments with 885 beds, with the supply in private homes certainly exceeding 1,000 beds. In that year, there were 31,897 hotel stays, including 12,216 foreigners, and between 7,000 and 8,000 people accommodated outside hotels.

56In 1974, the 55 hotels recorded about 126,000 stays, with other accommodations (second homes, 4 camping sites, 1 youth hostel) leading the way with 181,000 people officially counted, while unrecorded stays were certainly much higher. Germans, Swiss, French, Americans and Austrians represented almost 80% of foreign tourists.

  • 25 Where the Italian authorities attempted, in May 1971, to intern mafiosi in a tourist complex nearin (...)

57The distribution by island of the hotels gives a good idea of their unequal touristification: 14% in Lipari, the tourism hub, followed by the two volcanic attractions: 12% in Vulcano and 11% in Stromboli; 9% in Panarea, where northern Italians with high purchasing power (Milanese, Turinese, Venetians) stayed, who took over the island, 6% in Salina, the most agricultural, which was beginning to open up to tourism, only 2% in Filicudi25 and 1% in Alicudi, islands which were more remote (and still are). Since then, this hierarchy has changed little.

58After 1970, the multiplication, expansion and gentrification of new and renovated second homes were the key elements in the development of the archipelago, giving it its current appearance.

C. Stromboli, a tourist location not quite like the others

  • 26 The scandal in the United States was considerable, the case even getting as far as the Senate. This (...)
  • 27 Letter from I. Bergman to R. Rossellini, April 1948 (“ Dear Mr. Rossellini, I saw your films Rome, (...)
  • 28 The public stand-off between the two competing films, "Vulcano" and "Stromboli", shot at the same t (...)

59Although the first hotel was built in 1928, Stromboli's tourism history is recent and initially linked to the appearance of the volcano in films. Roberto Rossellini's film, Stromboli, terra di Dio, shot on the island between 4 April and 2 August 1949 (as well as in Rinella, on the island of Salina), allowed initial media coverage of the place, all the more so as the adulterous love story26 between the director and the Swedish actress Ingrid Bergman, a Hollywood star who, "in Italian, only knows how to say 'ti amo'"27 enthralled the national28 and international press, which was not yet called 'people'.

60Haroun Tazieff's documentaries, in 1949 and 1963, popularised a dangerous but accessible volcano.

61In 1993 Nanni Moretti devoted chapter II of his "Caro Diario" ("Dear Diary", in English) to the Aeolian Islands and, in particular, to Stromboli, where he set an improbable and implausible scene in which the main character (himself), above the craters, successfully requested American tourists to give him a preview of the events of an episode not yet broadcast in Italy of an American soap opera that was very popular at the time ("Love, Glory and Beauty"). Moretti's film, which has profoundly marked the recent history of this archipelago, shows, in 1993, islands that are still underdeveloped, with traces of their ancestral poverty. Salina is an island ruled by only children who keep their parents in line by controlling the telephones; Lipari is presented as a place without excessive charm, the victim of a permanent traffic jam; Panarea is a place of revellers who force the hero of the film to immediately get back on the boat and flee; and Stromboli is a rough and wild island, like its inhabitants, governed by a mayor who is more of a lunatic than a visionary, whose modernist and misguided projects are completely out of step with a society presented as closed.

62In the 1950s, in parallel with the development of tourism on the island by "Connaissance du monde", the role of student and sports associations should also be noted. The Messina section of the Corda Fratres (international student federation) built two "villages", first in Vulcano and then in Stromboli, in order to bring in Italian and foreign students. At the same time, the Italian Alpine Club set up a refuge for its members in Stromboli.

63At that time, the island was still in a state of neglect: it is estimated that in 1950, three-quarters of the houses had been deserted. We have the recent testimony of Gunther Wirth29, engineer, painter, teacher and gallery owner in Berlin, who stayed there in 1955 thanks to the work of Corda Fratres. He only stayed one night in the association's "villagio" due to swarms of mosquitoes. Visiting the island, looking for a house with the help of the mayor, he found that they were deserted, empty, without furniture, and even without toilets. There was no sewage system in Stromboli and the houses by the sea had a wooden plank wedged between two walls of lava, above the water... and the sanitary conditions of the place left much to be desired: Wirth points in particular to the absence of water on the island, which had to be imported by boat from Naples or Sicily. However, the hygiene of the pipes and the cistern must have left something to be desired, judging by the frequency of "Stomaco di Stromboli", which Europeans usually caught after four days (Wirth resisted for 10 days)30.

64As a painter, Wirth portrayed Stromboli, in particular the mill, which is now a large and beautiful waterfront house that can be rented online. He notes that this mill was bought by an Austrian in the 1960s, around which he put a barbed wire fence, upon which he comments as follows: "What a stark contrast to the many open doors in Stromboli!" (Fig. 8 & 9).

Fig.8. Günter Wirth, Gouache " Un mulino", 1955 (https://www.guenterwirth.com/​1955-stromboli/​)

Fig.8. Günter Wirth, Gouache " Un mulino", 1955 (https://www.guenterwirth.com/​1955-stromboli/​)

© Günter Wirth

Fig.9. Il Mulino, 2019

Fig.9. Il Mulino, 2019

© R. Knafou

65Until the 1980s, Stromboli was a resort for urban dwellers looking for a natural environment with little transformation, where water and electricity arrived only gradually. In Ginostra, they had to wait until 28 February 2004, an important date for this isolated place that could only be reached by sea or from the top of the mountain, along the craters: on that date, a quay was created for the smallest port in Italy, a generator to supply electricity and power the pump that pumped up the water brought by boat, a telephone booth and, in the meantime, a grocery store and two bistros.

66Even today, lighting is still absent from the public space of Stromboli, like the other Aeolian Islands, but this is a desire on the part of the authorities to ensure that these places retain distinctive characteristics, including the absence of light pollution.

  • 31 "Lì Naomi imparò a nuotare. Madonna invece parlava - come tutti - con Iddu, il vulcano. Come Kylie (...)

67From the 1980s onwards, more hotels appeared, while poor housing was modernised, before being transformed into second homes and rental accommodation. A jet set settled in Piscitá: Domenico Dolce, the Sicilian, and Stefano Gabbana, the Milanese, acquired one of their many houses there at the end of the 1990s, where they arrived with their 51-metre yacht, the Regina d'Italia, and entertained show biz31 celebrities. The President of the Italian Republic, Giorgio Napolitano, came here to find some peace and quiet.

68Restaurants have been added to the offer and Stromboli has become a neat, dashing tourist spot with its clean white houses full of flowers. We are now far from the poor houses with walls of leprous lime where people engaged in fishing and agriculture lived without comfort. Panarea's aesthetic has won over Stromboli.

69That said, Stromboli is not a tourist place like any other, because it has a very particular rhythm and spatial functionality that allows it to alternate busy and almost empty areas, hours of congestion and hours of absolute tranquillity. The island lives to the rhythm of the many boats that arrive in the afternoon from Sicily, Calabria or the other islands of the Aeolian archipelago, disembarking their passengers for a quick visit that saturates via Picone and via Roma (Fig. 10 & 11), leading to the church of San Vincenzo, near which is the house where I. Bergman and R. Rossellini stayed. Then the tourists get back on board their respective ships to enjoy the night-time tour of the island, as the eruptions glow in the darkness, while the island regains its ordinary calm in its streets lit only by the lights of the restaurants and shops that are still open. Elsewhere, especially on moonless nights, the island is plunged into pitch black disturbed by the rumbling of the volcano. By around 4-5 pm, depending on the season, the hundred or so climbers authorised to climb to the top of the mountain will have departed, under the supervision of professional guides, taking with them their helmets, walking sticks and headlamps that will enable them to descend the 900 metres of vertical drop on a dark night. Gone are the days when tourists, though far fewer in number, could climb the Pizzo sopra la fossa (918 m) whenever they wanted, without supervision, or even spend the night above the almost permanently erupting craters, as Bergman and Rossellini did. The influx of people wanting to experience a once in a lifetime spectacle, combined with the real risks involved and the desire to profit from such a phenomenon, have led the authorities to regulate climbing, which has been prohibited since 2007 for individuals without the assistance of a guide. The old route, which reached the Pizzo along the Sciara del Fuoco, from the observatory, has been deserted, replaced by a new route, less exposed, which only approaches the craters at its top; to shorten the descent time, a more direct return route has been created.

70It should be noted that on 1st July 2019 a €5 ticket for access to the volcano (as well as to Vulcano) came into force, the money raised being intended to finance actions focused on protecting the environment. In giving the information, the local and regional press noted that Stromboli was "overrun by groups of tourists from all over Europe".

71Needless to say that in 2019, this ticket did not make any profits for Stromboli, since it was only applied for 2 days, as the volcano's explosion occurred in the afternoon of 3 July. "Iddu" keeps inviting itself into humankind's problems…

Fig.10 & 11. Crowds in Via Roma, September 2014, around 6 p.m.; at the same time, the other streets are empty

Conclusion 

72If we combine the enticing permanent volcanic activity, which is the main driving force behind the archipelago's tourist numbers, with the fact that Stromboli's paroxysms are, to the current state of our knowledge, totally unpredictable, we can deduce that this "Russian roulette" tourism will last until a very deadly explosion has occurred, which could happen in the short term or not for decades or centuries, the timescale of the volcano being irreducibly alien to that experienced by humankind.

73Then this tourism will be put on trial, while the media will remind us that there is no such thing as zero risk, and tourist numbers will fall sharply, not compensated for by those who love risk and morbid spectacles.

74The human spirit, which is otherwise so creative, is incapable of weighing an unpredictable risk against the attraction exerted on it by earthly forces, for this is one of the rare occasions when urban dwellers feel a strong, existential link with the Earth that welcomes them. And if contemporary debates on global warming stress human responsibility but also its omnipotence (for having done and now seeking to undo), contact with an active volcano is, on the contrary, a source of humility in our relationship with the Earth where we have built our habitat and where there are only two solutions: accept the risk – for those who are aware of it – or flee.

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Bibliographie

Behncke, B. (2019), Il parossismo dello Stromboli del 3 luglio 2019 e l’attività nei giorni successivi: il punto della situazione al 13 luglio 2019, INGV, https://ingvvulcani.wordpress.com/2019/07/13/il-parossismo-dello-stromboli-del-3-luglio-2019-e-lattivita-nei-giorni-successivi-il-punto-della-situazione-al-13-luglio-2019/

Bertagnini, A., Di Roberto, A. and Pompilio, M. (2011), “Paroxysmal activity at Stromboli: lessons from the past”, Bulletin of Volcanology, 73(9), pp. 1229–1243.

Bertolaso, G., De Bernardinis, B., Bosi, V., Cardaci, C., Ciolli, S., Colozza, R., Cristiani, C., Mangione, D.,  Ricciardi, A., Rosi, M., Scalzo, A., Soddu P. (2009), “Civil protection preparedness and response to the 2007 eruptive crisis of Stromboli volcano, Italy”, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 182, pp. 269-277, Elsevier B.V.

Cavallaro, C. (1976), Evoluzione e prospettive della regione turistica delle Isole Eolie, Rassegna di Studi Turistici, anno XI, n. 1-2, gennaio-giugno, pp. 51-64.

Di Blasi, E., Arangio, A. (2016), “Il territorio delle Lipari tra ambiente, cinema e turismo / The territory of Lipari between environment, cinema and tourism”, Il Capitale culturale: Studies on the Value of Cultural Heritage, 4, pp. 455-465.

Famularo, F. (2008), ...e poi Stromboli, Edizioni Strombolibri, Pomezia.

Rosi, M., Levi, S.T., Pistolesi, M., Bertagnini, A., Brunelli, D., di Renzoni, A., Ferranti, F., Renzulli, A., Yoon, A. (2019), Geoarchaeological Evidence of Middle-Age Tsunamis at Stromboli and Consequences for the Tsunami Hazard in the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea”, Scientific Reports, 9(1), p. 677, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-37050-3

Protezione civile (2015), Isola di Stromboli, Piano nazionale di emergenza a fronte di eventi vulcanici

di rilevanza nazionale (38 p. + 94 p. d’annexes).

Comune di Lipari, Il Sindaco, Ordinanza n°46 del 06.08.2007, (Regolamentazione per l’accesso alla sommita’ del vulcano Stromboli e per les escursioni accompagnate da guide autorizzate).

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Notes

1 Stylists and entrepreneurs Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana put their house in Stromboli up for sale on 23 July 2019, less than three weeks after the spectacular explosion of the volcano.

2 The approximation comes from the fact that the data are available only on the scale of the municipality which, since 1869, has been that of Lipari, which includes the islands of Lipari, Alicudi, Filicudi, Panarea and Stromboli. Only the densely populated island of Salina escaped this grouping in 1869; in 1909 it was even divided into three municipalities...

3 This article was written three months before the deadly irruption (21 dead) of White Island vulcano, New-Zeland : An unespected irruption arrived in this unhihabited island on december 9, 2019 while 47 tourists just have landed.

4 The Sciara del Fuoco – "sciara", a Sicilian term derived from Arabic (sara: barren land); it can therefore be translated as the "barren land of fire" – is a huge alluvial cone on the edge of the craters (2 to 3 km wide). Its steep slope as well as its composition of very unstable materials makes this area prone to landslides and collapses.

5 Volcanic earthquake caused by the upwelling of magma.

6 statement by Carlo Doglioni, president of the INGV, http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/cronache/stromboli-l-allarme-dell-ingv-rischio-grande-tsunami-se-1744964.html

7 Eugenio Privitera, Direttore della Sezione di Catania Osservatorio Etneo (INGV), 19 August, 2019.

8 https://palermo.repubblica.it/cronaca/2019/07/10/news/stromboli_false_notizie_su_rischio_tsunami_gli_esperti_situazione_sotto_controllo_-230839919/

9 See Antonella Bertagnini & Alessio Di Roberto & Massimo Pompilio. Bull Volcanol, 2011, Paroxysmal activity at Stromboli: lessons from the past, 73:1229–1243; and Rosi et al., January 2019.

10 A "strana tempestà" (a "strange storm"), he wrote in a letter, the reading of which constituted the starting point for research initiated by Professor Mauro Rosi, of the University of Pisa. The establishment of the relationship between this tsunami and Stromboli is the result of interdisciplinary work carried out by volcanologists and archaeologists, published on 24 January, 2019 in the journal Scientific Reports: "Geoarchaeological Evidence of Middle-Age Tsunamis at Stromboli and Consequences for the Tsunami Hazard in the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea". https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-37050-3

11 Details taken from: Paroxysmal activity at Stromboli: lessons from the past/Antonella Bertagnini & Alessio Di Roberto & Massimo Pompilio. Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1229–1243.

12 In December 2002, the tsunami took 5 minutes to reach Panarea and ¾ an hour to reach Filicudi or Mondello (Palermo).

13 A. Melchior, http://www.lave.be/main/Infos/LE_VOLCAN_STROMBOLI.pdf, 12-page document, undated.

14 F. Famularo, 2008, "...e poi Stromboli", Edizioni Strombolibri, Pomezia, 221 p.

15 The monitoring network of the volcano, regularly extended over the years and following major eruptions, is now impressive:  seismic, acoustic and thermal stations; geochemical stations; ground deformation and landslide detection stations (inclinometers, dilatometers, interferometric radar, etc.);  gravimetric and magnetic stations; an experimental hydroacoustic monitoring system installed on a buoy at sea;  different types of cameras directed towards the Sciara and the craters. Most of the measured parameters are transmitted in real time, 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, to the operating theatres of the INGV and other competence centres (including the University of Florence), where they are analysed and processed.

16 See Antonella Bertagnini, Alessio Di Roberto, Massimo Pompilio, 2011, "Attività parossistica a Stromboli: lezioni dal passato".

17 "We've now got five minutes to take cover, instead of the 20 seconds we had before",says the guide quoted by Karl Laske, Le baiser de feu du Stromboli, 5 January, 2008, https://www.liberation.fr/sous-le-soleil-exactement/2008/01/05/le-baiser-de-feu-du-stromboli_61983

This period does not apply in the event of a paroxysmal explosion or a pyroclastic flow.

18 In addition, it is specified that vessels disembarking more than 40 passengers at Stromboli must have sufficient staff to accompany them during disembarkation and re-embarkation, ensuring that they do not park on the jetty. This is a new precaution, which takes into account the possibility of better managing a possible emergency situation.

19 There is the possibility of emitting three different types of acoustic signals (alert, evacuation, alarm stop) or of functioning as megaphones in order to send information messages to the population.

20 Charlie Buffet, Une heure dans le cratère du Stromboli, 14 August 2013, https://www.lemonde.fr/m-styles/article/2013/08/14/une-heure-dans-le-cratere-du-stromboli_3461544_4497319.html

21 It was based on the principle of "A film on the screen, the director on the stage," inviting explorers to give well-attended lectures. Paul-Emile Victor opened the series, followed by Commander Cousteau, H. Tazieff, Maurice Herzog, Alain Bombard and others.

22 Back in the spotlight since its eruption in March 1944 (the volcano had been inactive since 1929).

23 All this information comes from: C. Cavallaro, 1976, "Evoluzione e prospettive della regione turistica delle Isole Eolie", in "Rassegna di Studi Turistici" anno XI, n. 1-2, gennaio-giugno, pp. 51-64.

24 See Elena Di Blasi, Alessandro Arangio, 2016.

25 Where the Italian authorities attempted, in May 1971, to intern mafiosi in a tourist complex nearing completion, built with funding from the "Cassa per il Mezzogiorno". The accumulation of blunders – faced with the fait accompli of the local authorities and the population, the arrival of dozens of riot police and trucks in an island that had no road – alarmed the population who decided to leave the island en masse to go to Lipari. Faced with the repercussions of this popular revolt, the measure was cancelled. Not to mention that the misappropriation of a government-funded hotel to facilitate the tourism development of a derelict island was not the most coherent initiative. See "La rivolta di Filicudi", in "Il Notiziario delle Isole Eolie", maggio 1971, in http://www.archiviostoricoeoliano.it/wiki/la-rivolta-di-filicudi

26 The scandal in the United States was considerable, the case even getting as far as the Senate. This resulted in media coverage, which benefited the film as well as the island, brutally exposed to the spotlight.

27 Letter from I. Bergman to R. Rossellini, April 1948 (“ Dear Mr. Rossellini, I saw your films Rome, Open City and Paisan, and enjoyed them very much. If you need a Swedish actress who speaks English very well, who has not forgotten her German, who is not very understandable in French, and who in Italian knows only "ti amo," I am ready to come and make a film with you. »)

28 The public stand-off between the two competing films, "Vulcano" and "Stromboli", shot at the same time by A. Magnani and R. Rossellini, who were until that point a couple, made headlines and divided Italy in two, the south being pro Magnani and the north taking the side of the one who had managed to circumvent the Hollywood star. There was also the explosive personality of "la Magnani" who, during the filming of his film, went every evening, at dusk, to the tip of Vulcano to challenge Stromboli by insulting the Swedish girl...

29 https://www.guenterwirth.com/1955-stromboli/

30 Nowadays, water always arrives by boat, just like in the other Aeolian Islands. The absence of tourist reports in the archipelago indicates that hygiene has improved, although consumption of tap water is not recommended.

31 "Lì Naomi imparò a nuotare. Madonna invece parlava - come tutti - con Iddu, il vulcano. Come Kylie (Minogue)[…]. Tom (Cruise) chiedeva ogni giorno di fare un’escursione. "[There, Naomi learned to swim. Madonna spoke - like everyone else - with Iddu, the volcano. Like Kylie (Minogue) […]. Tom (Cruise) asked every day to take a trip.]

https://www.corriere.it/cronache/19_luglio_23/60-interni-t10corriere-web-sezioni-8cfd35d2-ad84-11e9-aafc-ff288f0f153c.shtml

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Table des illustrations

Titre Fig.1. Stromboli seen from Panarea, September 2019
Crédits © R. Knafou
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-1.png
Fichier image/png, 212k
Titre Sketch of Stromboli island
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-2.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 1,2M
Titre Fig. 2. The eruption of 3 June 2019, aerial shot with the village of Ginostra in the foreground.
Crédits Press.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-3.png
Fichier image/png, 250k
Titre Fig. 3. La Sciara del Fuoco, seen from the sea, September 2014.
Crédits © R. Knafou
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-4.png
Fichier image/png, 294k
Titre Fig. 4. The fiery cloud of June 3, photographed from a German aircraft, fortunately in a lateral position.
Crédits B. Behncke, 2019.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-5.png
Fichier image/png, 211k
Titre Fig. 4 bis. The Coast Guard enforces a no-navigation maritime zone, one nautical mile from the August 28 explosion area. September 2019
Crédits © R. Knafou
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-6.png
Fichier image/png, 178k
Titre Fig. 5. Local and national level scenarios.
Crédits Protezione civile, Isola di Stromboli, Piano nazionale di emergenza a fronte di eventi vulcanici di rilevanza nazionale, August 2015
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-7.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 204k
Titre Fig. 6 & 7. Advertising posters for two competing films made in the same year (spring 1949) and released in 1950.
Crédits Web.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-8.png
Fichier image/png, 1,9M
Titre Fig.8. Günter Wirth, Gouache " Un mulino", 1955 (https://www.guenterwirth.com/​1955-stromboli/​)
Crédits © Günter Wirth
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-9.png
Fichier image/png, 74k
Titre Fig.9. Il Mulino, 2019
Crédits © R. Knafou
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-10.png
Fichier image/png, 95k
Crédits © R. Knafou
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/docannexe/image/4829/img-11.png
Fichier image/png, 640k
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Rémy Knafou, « Stromboli or Russian roulette tourism », Via [En ligne], 16 | 2019, mis en ligne le 30 mars 2020, consulté le 19 février 2025. URL : http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/viatourism/4829 ; DOI : https://0-doi-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/10.4000/viatourism.4829

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Auteur

Rémy Knafou

Professeur émérite, Université Paris 1 – Panthéon-Sorbonne, remy.knafou@orange.fr

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