1The emergence of the Corona Virus was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China, marking an important turning point in history. COVID-19, a newly identified variant of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2), is believed to have been transmitted from bats to people (Shereen et al., 2020). It can spread from person-to-person contact who lack the natural immunity to fight against it. COVID-19 has spread from China to almost all countries in the world. As a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC), it devastated the global population and raised alert levels at all health institutions (Kaushik et al., 2020). Many countries reported severe illnesses and high death rates. Even if people lived with it, the world stopped their routine.
2The COVID-19 situation made the countries opt for various safety measures like social distancing and nationwide lockdowns, limiting physical interaction to the maximum level. The paramount goal of each nation was to bring the viral outbreak under control by testing the individuals, tracing the infected individuals, quarantining patients, and implementing COVID-19 relief measures. People were unhappy with the government restrictions as it affected them physically and mentally. For example, these restrictions led a mass group of working-class people to lose their jobs during the lockdown period by restricting them to their homes. During the lockdown period, people had to rely on online media for education, employment, health, and social connectivity, which became the new normal lifestyle.
3Social media served as an incredible resource for comprehending people’s perceptions and discussions of pandemic situations. The internet enabled millions of people to express their opinions in various social media handles (Ferrara, 2020) like YouTube, Twitter, Flickr, WhatsApp, Telegram, and WordPress to post articles, pictures, audio, and videos daily. Recognizing and comprehending the information and social content from social media presents significant research questions with important consequences. In the social media landscape, cartoons played a major role in visual storytelling by breaking the barriers for delivering cultural, social and political emotions. Nowadays, cartoonists are shifting from actual to online space to make critical comments about societal problems and incidents (Tunde et al., 2021). Cartoons can be classified as a multimodal discourse as they convey meaning through several semiotic elements (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2020). It provides valuable and relevant insights into societal perspectives on the COVID-19 pandemic, making it an important investigation.
4It is crucial to analyse the pandemic related cartoons to understand how various facets of the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused significant changes in people’s lives worldwide, are presented. By employing suitable approaches, the study analyses the cartoons shared in social media have the potential to reveal understandings on the outbreak, the resulting lockdowns, and its consequences.
5At present the emergency alarm of COVID-19 pandemic has subsided, however the impact is still enduring as a societal memory, and it is significant to gain enough knowledge from that period. The COVID cartoons chosen for the study captured real-life events through visual imagery in a more creative way. It functioned as a reflective medium for mirroring human fears, adaptive strategies, and government initiatives during the pandemic. Also, these cartoons serve as valuable documentation, shedding light on the ways in which social happenings have been understood and represented by the general public. By examining the visual and textual components of these cartoons, it is possible to uncover the underlying meanings and ideologies meticulously incorporated within these cartoons. The COVID cartoons analysed in this study highlights the communication patterns evolved during the crisis which can provide information to future crisis communication strategies. Hence, analysing these cartoons is a scholastic attempt.
6Tunde, Asiru, and Bello (2021) examine the pandemic’s comical and sarcastic depiction in randomly chosen cartoons from the context of Nigeria, by throwing lights on the situation of Nigerian health industry, social structure, and the nation’s essential characters in fighting the pandemic. The study highly talks about the situational aspects, however, it failed to interpret the role of language in engaging the readers. The comprehensive study of language elements should not be overlooked, which contributed to delivering the intended information. Yao (2021) examined the semiotic factors in creating exclusionary narratives. The geo semiotic perspective applied in this study focused on images of restricted mobility during COVID-19. However, the study is confined to the linguistic analysis of exclusionary discourse in geographic contexts and overlooks the other language resources.
7This presents the research lacunae to be addressed by the current study focusing on the language resources in COVID-19 cartoons. COVID-related cartoons circulated on popular social networking sites such as Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn are considered for investigation. It involves how cartoonists creatively integrate language resources to understand the COVID-19 scenario. The analysis of COVID-19 cartoons is essential as they provide a comprehensive understanding of information about the pandemic. Also, creatively delivering public health awareness by employing semiotic components allows for a nuanced investigation, ensuring that information on the global health crisis is understandable to the general public. Considering the objectives mentioned above, the study answers the following research questions:
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How did the cartoons depict the incidents related to the COVID-19 outbreak?
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How are the semiotic resources employed in the cartoons to convey COVID-19 messages?
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What are the major themes depicted in COVID related cartoons?
8This theoretical framework, deeply rooted in Visual Semiotics, extensively draws upon the foundational theories and insights of eminent theorists. The pioneering work of C.S. Peirce in semiotics, especially his triadic model of the sign comprising the representamen, object, and interpretant, is fundamental in understanding how images convey meanings and the interpretations they prompt (Peirce, 1931). The contributions of Umberto Eco bridge the gap between theoretical semiotics and practical application, offering valuable insights into how cultural contexts influence the interpretation of signs, a critical aspect when analysing culturally nuanced cartoons (Eco, 1979). A.J. Greimas’s (1970) narrative semiotics, and his development of the ’semiotic square,’ play a crucial role in deconstructing the complex relationships and structures within texts and visual narratives, making it highly relevant for dissecting the layered meanings in cartoons. Barthes’ (1968) work provides vital insights into the interpretation of cartoons communicated through dual messages. The first one is denotation (explicitly indicated) that describes the literal meaning of a word without subjective evaluations. This applies to cartoons, which are universally perceived regardless of culture, ideology, or society. The second is connotation that gives in the implied meaning. These are influential for this qualitative study as it supports subjective aspects that allow for multiple interpretations of the cartoon. Floch’s (2000) expertise focusing on the visual elements of communication, specifically examining how images, colours, shapes, and layouts communicate meaning in different contexts. These insights help to discover meaning and interpretation in visual communication particularly on how viewers perceive visual clues in cartoons within cultural and social settings. These interpretations aid in understanding the narrative, characters, and themes. Fontanille’s (1989, 2004) contributions focusing on embodied semiotics, emphasises that meaning is not exclusively formed through linguistic signs, instead also through facial expressions, gestures, and other non-verbal indications. Fontanille’s expertise in multimodal analysis, involving the interaction of different modes of communication, like visual, verbal, and gestural aspects gives a comprehensive framework for analysing complex communication processes in the chosen cartoons. His research on investigating how emotions and affective responses influence the interpretation of visual stimuli, shedding light on the emotional dimensions of visual communication. The interdisciplinary approach of Groupe µ et al. (1992) encourages to analyse the characteristics and attributes of cartoons, encompassing their visual traits, iconic nature, and the way they relate to other types of signs through similarity, analogy, and association. This also aids in analysing the ways in which various visual genres and practices employ rhetorical methods to captivate viewers and communicate particular meanings. Moreover, the cartoons can be significantly interpreted through the intricate nature of visual communication and its impact on comprehension of spatial representation through enunciative analysis (Dondero, 2020). Much thought has been given to her exploration of spatial disengagement in contrast to temporal disengagement in the field of art history. It also highlights the importance of perspective in enabling scholars to analyse how the viewpoint from which a picture is formed affects the possession of knowledge and power dynamics inside the image. The integration of these theorists offers a strong basis for the semiotic examination of cartoons related to COVID-19, enabling a thorough investigation of their intricate symbolism and significant communication.
9Building on this theoretical foundation, the framework integrates structuralist and pragmatist perspectives in visual semiotics. The structuralist approach systematically dissects the inherent structures within the cartoons, revealing the underlying patterns, codes, and conventions governing the construction and interpretation of visual signs. This approach is crucial in understanding the deep-seated frameworks that influence how viewers perceive and interpret the imagery in the cartoons. Conversely, the pragmatist perspective emphasises the viewer’s experience, cultural context, and situational aspects that affect sign interpretation. This inclusion acknowledges that the meaning of a cartoon is shaped not only by its structural elements but also by its reception and interpretation by diverse audiences in various contexts, particularly relevant for COVID-19 cartoons, given the pandemic’s global impact and the significant cultural, social, and individual variations in interpreting these cartoons. This hybrid approach allows for a multi-dimensional analysis, considering both the structural elements of the cartoons, such as visual composition, colour use, and symbolism, and the pragmatic aspects, like audience reception, cultural connotations, and real-world implications. This comprehensive method ensures that the analysis of COVID-19-related cartoons is grounded in the theoretical understanding of visual semiotics while remaining sensitive to the varied and dynamic interpretations elicited in different contexts.
10Continuing with the multi-dimensional approach, the framework further emphasises the role and narrative capacity of images in cartoons. Images are recognized not as mere embellishments or secondary to verbal text but as primary narrative tools. Influenced by the principles of Mitchell’s Visual Studies and Boehm’s Bildwissenschaft (Boehm & Mitchell, 2013), this perspective advocates for recognizing the narrative power inherent in visual semiotics. Mitchell’s Visual Studies suggest that images can narrate stories as effectively as written or spoken words, particularly significant in cartoons where visual elements such as characters, settings, or symbols are laden with meaning and contribute to the narrative independently of text. Boehm’s Bildwissenschaft, or ’science of images,’ reinforces the understanding of images as powerful communicative tools that do not merely represent but actively ’perform’ narratives, creating and conveying meanings beyond words. In line with this, Kress and van Leeuwen (2020) characterise narrative patterns as dynamic, presenting the progression of acts, occurrences, and changing spatial organisations. In narrative processes, a vector, which is a line generated by components inside the picture, links the characters depicted in the picture (cartoon). Vectors are created by the movement of body parts or objects when characters are depicted as engaging in actions towards or in support of one another. They can be identified as visual cues, such as eye-lines or gestures in a particular direction. The character who generates the vector is referred to as the ’Actor’ and the participant who gets the vector is referred to as the ’Goal’. Reactional processes occur in images when an eyeline forms a vector (when one character looks at another character, providing a narration), resulting in a reaction instead of an action. The character engaged in the process of observing is referred to as the ’Reacter’. The participant being observed is referred to as the ’Phenomenon’. A cartoon response can be classified as transactional if both the Reacter and Phenomena exist, or non-transactional if just the Reacter exists.
11This is especially pertinent for COVID-19 cartoons, where visual representations are crucial in portraying the pandemic’s nuances, often transcending linguistic barriers and cultural specificities. By drawing on these principles, the framework recognizes the rich narrative capacity of images, enabling a nuanced analysis of COVID-19-related cartoons where images are integral to the storytelling process, capable of engaging, informing, and impacting audiences profoundly.
12Following the narrative power of images, the framework seeks to clarify key concepts, especially the broad interpretation of ’linguistic’ in the context of visual semiotics. This expanded interpretation encompasses a wider spectrum of languages and semiotic systems beyond traditional spoken or written language, acknowledging that communication in cartoons extends to visual languages—symbols, imagery, and visual cues. The framework draws upon theories of visual and linguistic enunciation, specifically through the concepts of ’offer image’ and ’demand image,’ pivotal in understanding how images communicate with the viewer (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2020). An ’offer image’ invites contemplation and interpretation, allowing viewers to become observers at their own pace, while a ’demand image’ engages directly, often through the gaze of figures within the image, creating a more confrontational or interactive communication form. Applying these concepts to COVID-19-related cartoons enhances our understanding of how these visual narratives engage with audiences, dissecting how different images within the cartoons are constructed to either offer information for contemplation or demand emotional or cognitive engagement from the viewer. This approach to visual communication, informed by an expanded understanding of ’linguistic,’ enables deeper analysis of how cartoons effectively convey complex pandemic messages, bridging the gap between creator and audience through a rich tapestry of visual and verbal semiotics. For instance, the study looks into the translanguaging aspects of multiple language characteristics into a single frame and emphasises conceptualizations that go beyond prevailing linguistic objectives (Garcia & Li, 2014).
13Expanding on the clarification of key concepts, the framework delves into a more intricate structural analysis of visual narratives through the Greimasian school’s methods. This approach is essential in uncovering the underlying structures and meanings not immediately apparent in visual narratives. The Greimasian semiotic theory (Greimas, 1970), known for its focus on deep narrative structures and binary oppositions, provides a lens for unravelling the complex layers of meaning in COVID-19 cartoons, exploring fundamental narrative structures and thematic dichotomies present in the cartoons, such as health versus illness, freedom versus restriction, and communal solidarity versus individualism. Alongside the Greimasian approach, the framework integrates Göran Sonesson’s (1989) insights, a pivotal figure in semiotics, particularly his exploration of the semiotics of imagery and visual communication. His work on the phenomenology of visual semiotics complements the Greimasian structural focus, offering a more holistic view encompassing both the structural and experiential aspects of visual narratives. Combining the Greimasian school’s structural analysis (Greimas, 1970) with Sonesson’s phenomenological perspective (Sonesson, 1989) the framework attains a more comprehensive understanding of the cartoons, allowing for a nuanced analysis considering both the deep narrative structures and the immediate visual experiences of the audience. This approach is crucial in examining COVID-19 cartoons, enabling the dissection of both explicit and implicit messages conveyed and the emotional and cognitive responses these visual narratives evoke in viewers.
14Building on Greimasian and Sonesson’s methodologies, which provide a structural and phenomenological foundation, the framework advances to a detailed semiotic analysis of the cartoons. This analysis comprehensively examines various semiotic resources employed within these visual narratives, including shapes, colours, motions, and spatial arrangements, each carrying its own set of meanings and connotations significantly contributing to the overall narrative of the cartoons. Shapes in the cartoons are analysed for their symbolic significance and contribution to the narrative structure. For instance, infinity shapes possibly signifying continuity. Colour use is crucial, as different colours can evoke various emotional responses or symbolise concepts like red for danger or green for health. Motion within the cartoons, whether implied through lines and posture or explicitly depicted, plays a vital role in depicting action and guiding the viewer’s eye through the narrative. The spatial arrangement of elements within the frame can dictate the narrative flow, establish hierarchies, and create relationships between different components of the cartoon. Beyond individual elements, the framework pays significant attention to the interplay between visual and verbal elements in the cartoons, examining how text and imagery complement or contrast with each other to create multifaceted meanings. For instance, a cartoon might use ironic juxtapositions between what is said in the text and what is shown in the imagery, creating a layered understanding that challenges the viewer to engage with the cartoon on multiple levels. This semiotic analysis goes beyond superficial examination, delving into the intricate ways various semiotic resources are woven together to create rich, complex, and often nuanced narratives. This approach enables a deeper understanding of how COVID-19-related cartoons communicate their messages, revealing the subtleties and complexities of how they reflect and comment on the pandemic experience.
15Continuing from the detailed semiotic analysis of cartoons, the framework extends its scope by incorporating interdisciplinary insights, particularly from sociology, cultural studies, and psychology. This integration is crucial in understanding the broader implications of how cartoons reflect and influence social perceptions of the COVID-19 pandemic. From a sociological perspective, the analysis considers how cartoons mirror societal attitudes, norms, and behaviours related to the pandemic, exploring themes like social distancing, public health policies, and community responses, assessing how these aspects are represented and critiqued in the cartoons. This approach enables examining the societal context in which these cartoons are created and consumed, offering insights into public sentiment and collective experiences during the pandemic. Cultural studies provide another layer to the analysis, delving into how cartoons engage with and comment on cultural ideologies, identities, and power structures in the context of COVID-19, examining how different cultures process and respond to the pandemic and how these varied experiences are depicted and interpreted in cartoons. The cartoons may also be analysed for their role in perpetuating or challenging cultural narratives and stereotypes associated with the pandemic, such as those related to race, nationality, or socioeconomic status. Psychology offers a lens to understand the individual and collective emotional and cognitive responses elicited by the cartoons, analysing how cartoons communicate fear, humour, hope, or resilience, and how they influence public understanding and attitudes towards the pandemic. Psychological insights help decipher the coping mechanisms and emotional impacts depicted in the cartoons, providing a deeper understanding of the human aspect of the pandemic experience. By drawing on these interdisciplinary insights, the framework not only examines the semiotic construction of the cartoons but also situates them within the larger social, cultural, and psychological milieu of the COVID-19 pandemic. This comprehensive approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of the role of cartoons in reflecting and shaping public discourse and sentiment during these unprecedented times.
16This study adopts a qualitative content analysis approach, in alignment with Nunan’s (1992) perspective that qualitative research can unveil new insights and deeper understandings of issues. Specifically, the focus is on cartoons related to the COVID-19 pandemic, aiming to investigate how cartoonists employ language resources to convey information about the pandemic.
17The corpus of this study comprises 102 carefully selected cartoons that reflect various facets of the COVID-19 pandemic. The term “cartoons” in the study encompasses different visual utterances that employ creative and symbolic components to convey messages. For instance, figures 2 and 8, although not adhering to conventional hand-drawn or animation cartoon formats, reflect key features of cartoons such as visual metaphor, symbolism, and communication purpose, deserving to be included in the analysis. These cartoons were sourced from popular social media platforms with extensive global reach: Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn. Despite all the chosen platforms categorised as social networking sites, they diverge in terms of their purpose, target demographic, content format, and interaction dynamics. Twitter known for its fast-paced characteristic provides the readers with the options of like, retweet, and reply. It facilitates the promotion of hashtags, viral trends, real-time updates to the point. It contains user groups including journalists, celebrities, and the general people. Facebook primarily serves as a platform for sharing media of friends and family among personal networks. LinkedIn is utilised by corporate executives and industry professionals for the purpose of sharing knowledge to the professional audience. This selection ensures a representative sample of a diverse range of public sentiments and perspectives of individuals who share and create content.
18The selection of 102 cartoons was intentional and systematic. To create a balanced corpus that reflects each platform’s unique qualities, 35 cartoons each from Facebook and Twitter, and 32 from LinkedIn were randomly chosen. This selection process employed purposive sampling, a non-random technique where samples are chosen based on specific goals and criteria defined by the researcher. The rationale behind opting for purposive sampling is to ensure that all cartoons included in the study adhere to predetermined criteria relevant to the research objectives. While the term ’random’ is utilized here, it pertains to the process of selecting from a pool of cartoons that already meet the set inclusion standards, rather than implying a selection from a broader, undifferentiated collection. The use of this term underscores the intention to gather a diverse and pertinent array of cartoons for analysis within the bounds of the defined criteria.
19The following specific goals and criteria are used in the sample selection process. The primary criterion was the cartoon’s relevance to the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasising elements like safety measures, awareness, and their impact on individuals and society. To ensure a rich analysis, each cartoon was required to present a unique context and visual style, avoiding overlap in themes and representations. The chosen timeframe, June to August 2021, represents a critical period in the pandemic, thereby capturing the prevailing attitudes and societal challenges of that time. The study aimed to encompass the diverse nature of COVID-19-related content across different social networks, contributing to an inclusive analysis.
20Following the selection of cartoons, a detailed thematic analysis was conducted, drawing on methodologies recommended by Creswell (2009) and Ryan and Bernard (2003). This analysis aimed at identifying key themes that reflect the subtle and nuanced messages embedded in the cartoons.
21The analysis interconnected various elements of the cartoons, such as context, visual and linguistic features, with more complex aspects like emotional responses, cultural interpretations, and personal perceptions.
22The identification of themes is crucial and mysterious, denoting the complexity and intricacies of interpreting meaning from non-numerical data. According to Opler (1945) themes can only be observed and identified by examining the clear manifestations of expressions within the data. The use of linguistic and semiotic components in the cartoons is of utmost importance in this study for identifying and elaborating emergent themes.
23The study identified three predominant themes: The impact and adaptation to the COVID-19 pandemic, Management of crisis and advocating for COVID-19 awareness, and Humorous portrayals of pandemic encounters.
24These themes were instrumental in exploring the shared human experiences depicted in the cartoons, illustrating how cartoonists encapsulate public understanding and response to the multifaceted challenges posed by COVID-19.
25The study engages in classifying the cartoons under various themes by focusing on the contents presented in the cartoons. The subsequent analysis examines various language resources utilised by cartoonists to make light of the COVID-19 pandemic situation. The aspects of impact, awareness, and humour related to the pandemic are delivered through elements like offer image, demand image, denotation and connotation, lexicalisation, verbal incongruity and non-verbal incongruity, exaggeration, irony, symbolism, analogy, and shared socio-cultural knowledge. While it is not possible to find all the elements mentioned above in a single cartoon, they can be observed in the following cartoons collectively.
26The cartoonists have been continuously observing the world and designing the cartoons of the societies during and after the crisis. This includes how people lived with loss of job, adapted online education, and stayed indoors. The following cartoons are examined to see how these cartoons portray the theme ‘Impact and adaptation to the COVID-19 pandemic.’
Figure 1.
Loss of Job.
Source: LinkedIn.
27The cartoon in Figure 1 shows two office workers during the COVID-19 pandemic, symbolising the working class’s struggles. Through a lens informed by C.S. Peirce’s (1931) triadic model, the visual elements serve as representamen, conveying the object of pandemic-induced unemployment and economic uncertainty. The employees’ slouchy postures and despondent expressions, as analysed through Sonesson’s (1989) phenomenological perspective, evoke feelings of failure and anxiety. Through a lens informed by C.S. Peirce’s (1931) triadic model, the visual elements function as representamen, conveying the phenomenon of pandemic-induced unemployment and economic uncertainty. The cartoon depicts the challenges faced by employees amidst the pandemic, portraying widespread job loss and financial strain. Through metaphorical representation, the visual elements serve here as hypoiconic indicators, symbolizing the economic repercussions of the pandemic. Machin’s (2013) concept of an offer image is evident in the employees’ downward gaze, inviting contemplation rather than direct interaction with the viewer. Symbolism plays a crucial role in providing the societal context, with a red board reading “OUT OF BUSINESS” and a man holding a paper marked “Fired.” They connote (Barthes, 1968) the harsh reality of job losses where businesses had to shut down or operate remotely during the pandemic to comply with public health measures. COVID-19 signage on the white notice board next to the door emphasises the pandemic’s global impact on businesses and employment. These visual elements serve as representamen, narrating the hardships faced by employees during the pandemic as the object, and providing the interpretation of widespread unemployment and financial distress as the interpretant. This shows the cartoon’s communicative power and its reflection of pandemic-related social, and psychological issues using structuralist, pragmatist, narrative power, and interdisciplinary perspectives from sociology and psychology. Through a combination of visual elements and narrative power, the cartoon effectively communicates the hardships endured by employees during these unprecedented times, offering viewers a poignant reflection on the societal and economic ramifications of the crisis.
Figure 2.
Online Classrooms.
Source: Twitter.
28The cartoon in Figure 2 cleverly portrays the shift from traditional classroom education to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, using a visual metaphor of a grid resembling a video call interface, which has become a staple of virtual classrooms. This arrangement of faces represents an “activity space,” a term coined by Van Lier (2004), where each square on the grid functions as an individual zone of educational interaction. In this new digital realm, the computer screen becomes the central organizer of educational content and the mediator of the student-teacher interaction, reshaping the dynamics of the learning environment.
29Merkoulova’s (2021) concept of “digital leisure” is exemplified here, illustrating how the forced adoption of virtual learning has introduced new opportunities, allowing educational activities to occur beyond the traditional classroom settings and schedules. The humorous edit of the year ’2020’ to ’2022’ in bold red not only signals an update but also connotes (Barthes, 1968) a sense of emergency and continuity of the pandemic’s effects on education. According to Caivano’s (1998) association of colours with meanings, the red colour is often linked to alarm or warning and here, it highlights the extended nature of the pandemic’s disruption to the educational system. This denotative understanding of the colour choice provides knowledge into the immediate message conveyed by the cartoon.
30The cartoon uses irony to comment on the mistaken assumption that the impact of the pandemic on education would be short-lived. Instead, the persistence of ’2022’ over ’2020’ suggests that the changes in educational delivery have endured beyond initial expectations. Furthermore, it hints at the evolution towards a “hybrid” model of education that will likely remain even after the pandemic, integrating online elements into the traditional classroom setting. The visual commentary invites reflection on the long-term implications of the pandemic for educational practices, suggesting that the adaptations educators and students have made may become a permanent fixture of the educational landscape.
Figure 3.
Lockdown during pandemic.
Source: Facebook.
31The cartoon in Figure 3 employs a sophisticated blend of visual semiotics to convey a powerful message regarding the importance of adhering to curfew regulations during the COVID-19 pandemic. The presence of two uniformed individuals wearing face masks and holding batons, signals their identity as police personnel. Insights from Barthes (1968) regarding connotation and denotation shed light on the visual cues. The serious demeanour of the police officers denotes the importance of curfew regulations, while also connoting a sense of authority and urgency.
32Furthermore, the Grim Reaper is depicted as a trans-semiotic figure, fueled by both visual representations (iconic) and verbal narrations (symbolic) to illustrate the concept of death and its appearance. The dialogue bubble containing the phrase “Only ghosts come out uninvited” conveys the significance of complying with curfew measures, while the depiction of the Grim Reaper symbolizes the fear and potential consequences associated with violating these regulations. Additionally, Umberto Eco’s insights into cultural contexts enrich the analysis by highlighting the transcultural significance of signs and symbols. The inclusion of the word “BHOOT!” above the Grim Reaper adds a transcultural dimension. It means “ghost” in Hindi, implying a ghostly figure. This is seen from a translanguaging perspective where the language of the cartoon navigates between Hindi and English to make meaning.
33Referring to Hasan’s (2010) concept of codes as social semiotic constructs, the analysis recognizes the cultural significance of symbols like the Grim Reaper, resonating across different cultural contexts as a representation of death and invoking fear as a persuasive tactic.
34Peirce’s Triadic Model of semiotics (1931) offers insight into the interplay between representamen, object, and interpretant within the cartoon. Visual elements such as the police personnel and the Grim Reaper represent objects like law enforcement and the consequences of breaking curfew, respectively, while viewers derive interpretations encompassing notions of authority, fear, and the necessity of compliance.
35On the whole, A.J. Greimas’s narrative semiotics (1970) elucidate the ideological conflict depicted in the cartoon, juxtaposing the establishment of law and order represented by the uniformed participants against the negative repercussions symbolized by the Grim Reaper, thus underscoring the tension between authority and consequence.
36In the pandemic period, awareness (state of being informed) is an essential component. People had to know the information and knowledge related to COVID-19, like safety measures, hygienic practices, and new regular lifestyle changes. Cartoons shared through social media provide the actual happenings related to the pandemic more creatively. The following analysis captures the cartoons that evoke the theme, ‘Management of crisis and advocating for COVID-19 awareness.’
Figure 4.
The Neverending Narrative.
Source: Twitter.
37In Figure 4, Peirce’s triadic model (1931) of the sign plays a pivotal role in comprehending how the depicted characters and elements interact to convey meaning in the context of the COVID-19 scenario. The dynamic interplay between the three participants—the two middle-aged men and the coronavirus—reflects the complexity of the relationships depicted, aligning with Peirce’s framework of ‘representation, object, and interpretant’ (1931).
38The coronavirus, depicted with a monstrous smile, serves as the object of the sign, embodying the threat and impact of the virus in the ongoing pandemic. The man sitting atop the coronavirus can be interpreted as the actor, symbolizing power and control over the situation, exerting influence over the unfolding narrative. Meanwhile, the man being chased represents the goal, striving to return to normalcy amidst the looming threat of the virus. As the narrative unfolds, ‘the reaction of the man being chased’ (phenomena) and the response of ‘the man atop the coronavirus’ (reacter) evoke interpretations and responses from the viewer, aligning with the notions of reacter and phenomena making it a transactional image (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2020). The depicted struggle against the virus, elicits emotional and cognitive responses shaped by their individual experiences and perceptions of the pandemic.
39Umberto Eco’s (1979) insights further enrich the analysis, highlighting how symbols like the coronavirus vaccines and the waves of COVID-19 reflect broader societal attitudes and experiences. The injection symbols, Roman letters II and III, signify the ongoing struggle against successive waves of the pandemic, contributing to the narrative complexity of the cartoon.
40A.J. Greimas’s narrative semiotics (1970), combined with the structuralist approach, allow for a deeper exploration of the underlying themes and dichotomies present in the cartoon. The depiction of the runner’s pursuit towards the target board labeled “Back to Normal” juxtaposed with the man lifting the target board suggests a narrative of unattainable goals and perpetual struggle against the pandemic’s effects.
41The visual schema developed in Fontanille (1989) and taken up in Dondero (2020) involving exposure, accessibility, inaccessibility, and obstruction helped to analyze the dynamics of vulnerability, uncertainty, and obstacles faced by the human in confronting the pandemic. The human figure running in front of the coronavirus with no direct gaze and having a horizontal interaction angle is exposed to the threat, symbolizing vulnerability and the direct impact of the pandemic. The accessibility aspect relates to the runner’s ability to perceive and understand the situation. The runner’s vision of the track’s target board taken away, indicates a sense of uncertainty and unpredictability. Inaccessibility can be seen in the runner’s struggle to have a clear view or understanding of the pandemic’s trajectory. The presence of coronavirus with a monstrous smile and the man riding atop it, staring down vertically, symbolise power and fearlessness. This can be seen as an obstacle or obstruction, creating a sense of challenge and uncertainty in navigating the situation. Moreover, applying Roland Barthes’ (1968) concepts of connotation and denotation, provides socio-psychological perspective. For instance, the bright red-coloured coronavirus and the bold text “The Never-Ending Narrative” not only denote the ongoing challenges and uncertainties surrounding the pandemic but also connote the sense of urgency and perpetual struggle endured by individuals.
Figure 5.
War on Covid.
Source: Twitter.
42The cartoon in Figure 5 employs symbolic elements, including a male character (Subject), a banner (Object) showcasing a Möbius strip containing a red dot labelled “You are Here,” and the caption ’War on COVID-19’ in bold capital letters at the top of the banner, providing additional information to the image in the banner (Klinkenberg, 2008). The inclusion of “You are Here” denotes a pastiche of a street sign, enriching the visual narrative and providing contextual cues for interpretation (Ruesch & Kees, 1974). This pastiche adds depth to the cartoon’s communicative power by referencing familiar visual elements that viewers can easily relate to. The Greimasian semiotic perspective (1970) unveils deeper narrative structures and thematic dichotomies present in the cartoon, particularly the tension between urgency and uncertainty in pandemic response.
43The cartoon’s narrative power lies in its visual storytelling, engaging viewers through symbolic imagery rather than explicit verbal cues. The Möbius strip, a symbol of infinity, signifies the indefinite duration of the pandemic, while the red dot denotes the person’s current position in the ’War on COVID-19.’ The caption ’War on COVID-19’ also connotes (Barthes, 1968) a sense of urgency and collective effort in combating the pandemic.
44Göran Sonesson’s (1989) phenomenological perspective complements this by exploring the experiential aspects of visual narratives, highlighting the emotional and cognitive responses elicited by the cartoon. Shapes, colours, and spatial arrangements within the cartoon contribute to its overall narrative. The Möbius strip’s shape symbolizes continuity, while the red colour of the dot conveys danger and urgency. The whole figure of the character in the cartoon gives an impersonal close relationship between the character and the viewer (Hall, 1966). The spatial arrangement of the male character looking up leading at the banner demands the viewers to feel pity for the character (Ly & Jung, 2015). The character’s posture, facial expressions, gestures, and demeanour reveals its background (Machin, 2013), reflecting societal attitudes and emotional responses to the pandemic (Ly & Jung, 2015), offering insights into collective experiences and struggles.
Figure 6.
Variant and Booster.
Source: Twitter.
45Figure 6 illustrates a cartoon that shows the impact of COVID-19 and vaccination. The structuralist approach is applied to dissect the inherent structures within the cartoon, revealing underlying patterns, codes, and conventions governing its construction and interpretation. The cartoon features ten representations of humans in the race track out of which nine taking part in the race and one choosing to withdraw. The track exhibits a bicoloured pattern and is shaped like a Möbius strip. It serves as a structural element laden with symbolic significance. The shape of the track adds deep layered meaning to the narrative of the cartoon providing a visual flow to the viewer (Klinkenberg, 2008). The cartoon shows colour symbolism where the colour meanings are universally allocated, independent of the context in which they are observed. Green is commonly linked to safety, yellow to caution, and red to risk (Caivano, 1998). The section of the track adjacent to the variation board is coloured red, while the section near the booster board remains green. The cartoon features two yellow entrance signs on the race track: one labelled “variation” and the other labelled “booster.” A red balloon in the shape of the coronavirus has been affixed to the variation board. An injection sign is displayed on the booster board. It signifies additional doses of a vaccine to enhance its effectiveness.
46Sonesson’s phenomenological insights help us understand how viewers emotionally connect with the cartoon, empathising with the characters and reflecting on their own inner feelings. The distressing situation experienced by victims during the pandemic has been demonstrated by the leaning forward and quick movement (Ruesch, 1974) of their images in the red area of the track, symbolising danger. It connotes COVID-19’s fear and anxiety, faced by humans. This describes the initial situation of the pandemic (Greimas, 1970). In search of a solution, vaccine booster doses were distributed. This is represented through green track (safety) since it promised the human population in safeguarding their well-being after immunisation. However, the track’s shape connotes that these are not complete which shows a disruption (Greimas, 1970).
47Following the depiction of humans feeling confident after receiving the vaccine in the green track of images, the red track emerges, illustrating individuals becoming fearful once again and expressing concerns about COVID variations. This resurgence of worry casts doubts on the effectiveness of vaccination. This is represented in the cartoon by additionally depicting a human character withdrawing from the designated path. This connotes that the character is experiencing exhaustion due to the never ending COVID-19 pandemic. On the whole, the semantic square (Greimas, 1970) revolves around the following: the semantic opposition between safety and danger; positivity and fear; confidence and anxiety; vaccination and COVID variants. The cartoon through semiotic elements wisely portrays the prevailing concern around coronavirus variants and the trust placed on vaccine boosters.
Figure 7.
Covid free world.
Source: Facebook.
48The cartoon depicted in Figure 7 employs visual metaphor (Forceville, 2009) to promote the widespread use of COVID-19 vaccinations in order to eradicate the virus. The image of the Earth personified as a smiling figure represents humanity as a whole, emphasizing the collective human experience during the COVID-19 pandemic. The phrase “COVID FREE” undergoes translanguaging, where the symbol of the coronavirus is substituted for the letter ’O’. This demonstrates language flexibility between symbol and phrase, where visual symbols enhance the meaning of textual phrases, fostering deeper comprehension among diverse audiences (García & Li, 2014). The smiling Earth holding a vaccination injection in its left hand and a “COVID FREE” card in its right hand narrates a story of hope and progress. Also, connotatively (Barthes, 1968) this personification suggests a sense of unity and shared experience among people worldwide, emphasizing the collective effort needed to combat the pandemic. It suggests that widespread vaccination efforts are essential for achieving a COVID-free world, contributing to the overall narrative of overcoming the pandemic. The injection symbolizes the act of vaccination, which is depicted as a crucial step towards freeing the Earth from the grip of the pandemic. This symbolism reinforces the importance of vaccination in combating COVID-19.
49The positioning of the Earth holding the vaccination injection and “COVID FREE” card in its hands draws attention to these key elements, emphasizing their significance in the narrative. The composition effectively guides the viewer’s gaze (asks the viewers to connect with the shared characteristics) and reinforces the central message of the cartoon (Jewitt & Oyama, 2001). The use of colours such as blue for the Earth and contrasting colours for the vaccine and “COVID FREE” card helps create visual emphasis and coherence within the cartoon, enhancing its communicative power.
50The cartoon reflects the global effort to combat the COVID-19 pandemic through vaccination campaigns. It underscores the importance of collective action and emphasizes the role of vaccination in achieving global health security. The smiling Earth and the optimistic imagery of vaccination convey a sense of hope and positivity, potentially evoking feelings of reassurance and motivation among viewers to participate in vaccination efforts.
51Shortly after the COVID-19 outbreak, cartoonists shared pandemic-related information with playful elements and interesting signages in their cartoons. The transformation of written words and usage of visual elements for lyrical, humorous, and pragmatic purposes is common in linguistic and semiotic creativity (Thurlow, 2019). The integration of language elements that are portrayed humorously is analysed in the following cartoons. The following cartoons are examined to see how these cartoons portray the theme ‘Humorous portrayals of pandemic encounters.’
Figure 8.
The COVID ornament.
Source: Facebook.
52Figure 8 employs a variety of visual metaphors to vividly depict the profound impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cherished Christmas festivities of 2020. One striking example is the ornament embellished with four dolls, each representing participants in the events of the year. This creative metaphor, as explored by Forceville (2009), serves as a poignant reflection of the challenges and adaptations faced during this tumultuous period. Additionally, the use of iconic signs, such as the Santa hats adorning the doll faces, seamlessly integrates elements of traditional holiday imagery with the contemporary context of the pandemic (Roque, 2010). This blending of familiar symbols with new realities serves to underscore the enduring spirit of celebration amidst adversity. Moreover, the substitution of the ’0’ in 2020 with the shape of the coronavirus and a tissue roll offers a striking visual representation of the year’s defining feature. This substitution, in line with Groupe µ et al. (1992)’s emphasis on visual symbolism, powerfully communicates the ubiquity of the pandemic’s influence.
53Drawing inspiration from Mitchell’s Visual Studies and Boehm’s Bildwissenschaft, Figure 8 recognizes the rich narrative potential inherent within visual semiotics. This interdisciplinary approach, advocated by Groupe µ et al. (1992), emphasizes the analysis of visual genres and practices to uncover the rhetorical strategies employed in conveying nuanced meanings. Further examination reveals elements of similarity and analogy within the visual elements. Dolls donning masks and hand sanitizer bottles serve as potent symbols of the widespread adoption of safety measures (Groupe µ et al., 1992). The ornament itself becomes an analogy for the transformative nature of the pandemic, reshaping traditional holiday customs and traditions. Barthes’ concepts of connotation and denotation shed light on the deeper layers of meaning embedded within the imagery. While the dolls denote individuals, their symbolic significance extends to represent the collective societal experience during the pandemic (Barthes, 1968).
54Through a careful blend of playful imagery and serious subject matter, Figure 8 effectively communicates a profound message about the resilience and adaptability of human spirit in the face of unprecedented challenges. It harnesses the cultural significance of Christmas ornaments to offer poignant insights into the evolving socio-cultural landscape.
Figure 9.
Father’s Day.
Source: LinkedIn.
55The cartoon in Figure 9 creatively explains COVID-19’s beginning in China. The human image representing the Coronavirus in the cartoon serves as an “iconic sign” (Roque, 2010), where the visual depiction resembles the signified concept of the virus itself. This visual metaphor allows for the immediate recognition and interpretation of the Coronavirus character. The communication between the personified Coronavirus and the man beside it introduces verbal incongruity. It means the context contradicts the literal meaning (Ghosh et al., 2019). The greeting of “Happy Father’s Day” in the “speech bubble adds information” (Klinkenberg, 2008) by the Coronavirus to Xi Jinping adds a layer of information to the cartoon, prompting viewers to consider its political implications and critique of the Chinese government’s handling of the COVID-19 outbreak.
56The use of “Happy Father’s Day” as a greeting from the Coronavirus to Xi Jinping metaphorically portrays Jinping as a paternal figure responsible for the nation’s well-being. This implies a political critique of the Chinese government, particularly under Jinping’s leadership, regarding their accountability for the COVID-19 outbreak. Denotatively, it appears as a positive greeting, but connotatively, it implies criticism or displeasure towards Jinping’s leadership, adding depth to the cartoon’s message.
57The cartoon can be categorized as a “plastic sign” (Roque, 2010), considering its design, shape, and composition. The visual representation effectively conveys the message of political critique through the interaction between the Coronavirus character and Xi Jinping, supported by the textual elements such as the greeting and the mention of China.
58Humour can be any kind of expression that seeks to elicit enjoyment or laughter, irrespective of its universal comprehension or interpretation (Attardo, 2009). The cartoon effectively blends humour with a serious message, utilizing verbal irony and political critique to convey its message. The use of humour in the cartoon may not be immediately recognized due to the connotative seriousness of the message, making it more impactful.
59On the whole, the structural analysis unveils dichotomies such as political power versus public health, while Sonesson’s phenomenological insights (1989) delve into the experiential aspects of interpreting visual narratives. For example, the interpretation of the cartoon may vary significantly depending on social perspectives on leadership, government accountability, and individual rights. Some societies promote openly criticising political leaders, whereas others find it disrespectful or taboo.
60In the digital age where social media is often manipulated by influential figures such as politicians, influencers, entrepreneurs, and religious figures, it is crucial to examine the approaches of persuasive language. The cartoons analysed in the study unveil the breadth of the world’s lamentable healthcare system, and expose the prevalence of their societal perceptions in social media. Understanding language resources in cartoons involves looking into the cartoons from a visual semiotic perspective as they provide a visual narrative. Cartoons use semiotic resources such as language, diagrams, visual texts, body movements, and the spatial arrangement of distinct components to communicate meaning and evoke critical thinking. Many researchers consider them as language genres that are interconnected and collectively influence the way learners think (Jewitt et al., 2001). For instance, cartoons used shapes, colours, and motion to portray emotions and events, while speech bubbles and language subtitles provide background. These created the narrative spaces by constructing a link between the creator, observer, and participants used in the cartoon. Specifically, the underlying meaning between the participants used in the cartoon, the relationship between the creator and observer of the cartoon, and the relationship between the participants and the observer of the cartoon (Sonesson, 1989) provided the visual narration.
61The multilayered meanings hidden in the cartoons have been interpreted from dynamic theoretical perspectives. The investigation of visual metaphor as noticed in Figure 7, 8, and 9 in the study is closely related to the “field of rhetoric” (Forceville, 2009). Andrew Ortony’s Metaphor and Thought (1979) and Lakoff and Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By (1980) were significant publications that marked the shift from verbal to conceptual research on metaphor. Semiotic study in relation to colours (Roque, 2010) helped to evaluate the symbolic and communicative influence of cartoons, enhancing the interpretation of visual information. The cartoons’ ideological aspects and aesthetics provided connotative and denotative meanings (Barthes, 1968). The characters that are intentionally modified to highlight specific characteristics or document what is happening worldwide (Machin, 2013) are interpreted to understand the semiotic interaction.
62To deliver the intended message, cartoonists employ different modes (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2001). Scollon and Scollon (2003) mention factors like sign or symbol, such as language, images, visual texts, artefacts, and spatial arrangement of distinct components has to be considered when analysing the cartoon. These elements are acquired from the external physical world and used as novel semiotic resources for communicative objectives in online platforms (Kallen et al., 2020).
63Overall, the analytical framework built on visual semiotics enabled the researchers to give a multi-dimensional analysis of the cartoon, considering its structural, narrative, semiotic, and socio-psychological dimensions. By integrating theoretical perspectives and interdisciplinary insights, the analysis reveals the rich layers of meaning embedded within the cartoons, providing valuable insights into its interpretation and societal significance during these unprecedented times.
64The study observed three primary themes: the impact and adaptation to the COVID-19 pandemic, management of crisis and advocating for COVID-19 awareness, and humorous portrayals of pandemic encounters. The prevalence of social media cartoons promoting these primary themes is remarkable as it communicated the crucial information that happened during a public health crisis. The cartoons possess a unique capacity to streamline complex realities and effectively convey multiple events. The cartoons analysed in the study projected the people’s physical and mental well-being during pandemic bycapturing and articulating complex emotions such as fear, tension, forceful adaptations. The cartoons derive their interpretative depth from skillful incorporation of semiotic features to effectively communicate the intricacies of the COVID-19 pandemic. The use of vibrant colours, such as the striking red employed in the representation of the ’corona’ picture (see figure 1) and more softer shades of green used in the depiction of vaccines (see figure 6), serves as a symbolic representation of the pandemic experience, considering both good and bad aspects. Every cartoon analysed, elicits a range of interpretations which can be associated with individual and societal consequences of the pandemic.
65The language resources used in cartoons helped to analyse people’s perspectives and social responses, incorporating several factors. The observed themes accentuate the primary challenges encountered by people during the pandemic, including their anxieties as well as their hopes. All of this data is valuable for informing future policy formation initiatives to look into the lived experiences of people in the pandemic.
66The dataset is limited to 102 cartoons from different social media channels. A larger and diverse dataset could provide different interpretations of linguistic and semiotic components portrayed in these cartoons. The incorporation of distinct language or visual aspects in the cartoons relied upon time of the pandemic, so impacting the overall scope of the research. Future studies should concentrate on the audience’s perception of these pandemic communication in cartoons.
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