1This paper is part of a special issue about education choices across the globe. I will examine education choices in Australian primary and secondary schooling. I will focus on the two main aspects of education choice that are available in Australia: choice of school, and choice of curricular path in upper secondary school. In this paper I will first provide a brief overview of the structure and organisation of schooling in Australia. I will then examine education choice along three dimensions: the nature and frequency of education choices; stakeholders in the choice of study pathways; and public policies relating to education choice. I will then discuss the implications of education choices in Australia for educational equity and effectiveness, provide recommendations for improving equity while preserving choice, and then conclude with the main message.
2Australia has a comprehensive system of schooling of twelve years. In most states, primary school comprises Years 1 to Year 6, and secondary school comprises Year 7 to Year 12. The curriculum is comprehensive from Years 1 to 10, meaning that all students study the same core subjects. In the final two years of schooling, students choose specific subjects and curricular pathways.
3Schooling is the responsibility of states and territories, but the federal government plays a role as well. State education authorities fund, organise and manage government schools in their respective state or territory. The federal government designs national curricula and assesses and reports on student outcomes through the Australian Curriculum and Reporting Authority (ACARA). ACARA assesses student literacy and numeracy in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 through its standardised test, the National Program of Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN). All students are required to sit NAPLAN. School average NAPLAN scores are published on the MySchool website, which is run by ACARA. The purpose of MySchool is to provide information to families about schools.
4Australia has a large private education sector. Public schools (also called government schools) are managed and funded by state education authorities. Private schools (also called non-government schools) are funded by private sources such as households, associations and churches, but are also provided public funding, primarily from the federal government but also from state education authorities. More than one third of students attend a non-government school, and 40% attend a non-government school secondary school (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2024).
5In this section I will examine education choices along two dimensions: household choice of school, and student choice of the curriculum in upper secondary school.
6Households are given ample opportunities to engage in school choice in Australia. Government schools have catchment areas, and students who reside within the area are guaranteed a spot. Students may also apply to a non-local government school, although it is up to the discretion of the school whether they are admitted. Households may also choose a non-government school, which are plentiful. Non-government schools comprise mainly faith-based schools, but alternative philosophy schools such as Steiner and Montessori also exist. Catholic schools may give priority to members of the local Catholic church or diocese.
7Government secondary schools, especially in affluent neighbourhoods in large cities, are frequently oversubscribed. This means that the number of applications for enrolment exceeds supply. State education authorities often manage this demand by creating selective programs for non-local students. In such cases, non-local students are only admitted if they are successful in receiving a spot within the select entry program. These are called partially selective schools, because most students are enrolled based on residence within the catchment area and only a minority of students are admitted through the select entry program. Fully selective government schools, which do not have catchment zones and instead enrol students purely on academic selection, are relatively rare, comprising 1% of all government schools in Australia (Tham et al., 2024). While the percentage of students that attend such schools is very small, demand far exceeds supply of spots. For example, 18,500 students sat the NSW selective high school test in 2024 for 4,200 spots (Tham et al., 2024).
8School choice is also enacted through the large nongovernment (private) school sector. Non-government schools are plentiful and diverse. Most non-government schools have a faith orientation, typically Catholic or Protestant. Fees at non-government schools range widely, from a few thousand Australian dollars at the low-fee range to $30,000 or more at the most prestigious and exclusive schools. Non-government schools are rarely academically selective although they may admit students based on prior academic or behaviour records.
9The second main dimension of educational choice in Australia comprises choice of study pathway in secondary school. The national curriculum provides a comprehensive framework for students in Years 1 to 10. In Years 11 and 12, study pathways diverge into academic and vocational pathways, with substantial variation within each stream. Students can earn a school leaving certificate (i.e. high school diploma) by completing either a vocational or academic pathway.
10A secondary school leaving certificate based on an academic pathway comprises the study of four to six academic subjects in Years 11 and 12. Externally assessed subjects lead to a score on the Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR), which is used by universities to admit students. The external exams are created and administered by each state/territory education authority.
11Each state education authority creates the course standards and syllabi for its general academic and externally assessed academic subjects. Academic subjects cover eight learning areas: the arts, English, health and physical education, humanities and social sciences, languages, mathematics, science, and technologies. Within each learning area are specific subjects. For example, the science learning area comprises distinct subjects in biology, chemistry, earth and environmental science, human biology, physics and psychology. Taken all together, each jurisdiction typically provides 80 or more subjects which can be offered by schools.
12Schools choose which subjects to provide their students. Very few schools would offer all or even most of the subjects that are available to be provided in their state. Most schools offer core academic subjects in English, science, and mathematics, but substantial variations between exist in offerings in more specialised subjects. Offerings in the arts and humanities, including foreign languages, are especially varied.
13In terms of subject selection, students are given substantial flexibility to choose subjects that are aligned with their interests and aspirations and which are offered by their school. Students must take one English subject and one math, science or technology subject, but are otherwise allowed to specialise and choose courses of study that match their interests and strengths.
14Vocational education in Australia comprises nationally recognised, accredited and standardised certificates across four levels (certificate one is the most basic, and certificate four is the most advanced). For illustrative purposes, to become an electrician, one must complete a Certificate II in electrotechnology, and then undertake an apprenticeship and further structured training, culminating in a Certificate III in Electrotechnology Electrician.
15Secondary school students can pursue vocational education pathways either through training at their school or at a registered training provider. Many secondary schools offer a few vocational education pathways leading to a Certificate II, but few schools offer a comprehensive range of vocational qualifications (DET, 2017). Most of the vocational pathway that are offered in schools tend to be in the relatively low-paid care and hospitality industries (Polesel, 2008). This is likely due to the fact that more specialised vocational training in the skilled trades is expensive and complex for secondary schools to offer.
16To receive a secondary school leaving qualification, students may choose an academic or vocational pathway. The vocational pathway option typically requires completion of a Certificate II. Students can complete vocational pathways that are offered by their secondary schools, or they may complete a Certificate II at a vocational education provider. Completing a vocational pathway at their school is more convenient but offerings are typically limited. Alternatively, students can complete academic subjects to receive the school leaving qualification. Academic subjects are offered at two levels: general and externally assessed. Students who are pursuing an academic pathway choose whether they will study general or externally assessed subjects. Completion of four or more externally assessed subjects leads to a score on the Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank (ATAR), which is used by universities to admit students.
17Study pathways are chosen by students but schools provide guidance. There is no overarching or standardised approach, and schools are provided flexibility to inform and guide students about study pathways as they see fit. Somewhat sad but unsurprisingly, academically high-achieving students are typically encouraged to continue their study of academic subjects, whereas low-performing and/or disengaged students are often encouraged to study vocational subjects, as this is seen as being more relevant for students. Generally, students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to engage in vocational education and training than are their peers from higher socioeconomic backgrounds in Australia (Lamb et al., 2015).
18Australian schooling is highly marketized, which means that schools are competing for students within an educational marketplace. Public reporting of student achievement on ATAR subjects is done on an annual basis in most jurisdictions via the publication of league tables in mass media outlets. For example, schools are ranked by the proportion of high achievers on ATAR exams. Schools are aware that these league table rankings can influence household decisions about choice of school, so schools are incentivized to maximise their overall ATAR rankings (Perry & Lubienski, 2020). Schools may do so by encouraging students who are perceived to be low-performers out of these ATAR subjects as a way to protect the school’s image and reputation (Perry & Lubienski, 2020). Certainly, students are advised and sometimes restricted from studying particular ATAR-level subjects in Years 11 and 12 if their school does not believe they have the capacity to do well.
19In general, public authorities beyond the school do not directly influence or constrain student choices of study pathways. Education authorities do not ration the number of students who can study particular subjects or pathways. Rather, student choices of subject pathways are influenced by their individual motivations, the offerings available at their school, and teacher or school guidance about the student’s suitability for a particular subject.
20It could be argued, however, that education authorities indirectly influence student choices, however, via their organization, resourcing and funding of schools. Student choices of study pathways are very much determined by the offerings that are available at their school. These offerings, in turn, are influenced by the resources available to the school, as well as by the school’s positioning in a competitive education marketplace (Perry & Lubienski, 2020).
21Career guidance and education is provided in several ways in Australia. The Australian Curriculum has one subject about careers education, which is offered as an elective (not mandatory) subject in Year 9, when students are approximately 15 years old. Otherwise, students learn about careers education through their teachers, school guidance counsellors, parents and peers (D’Angelo & Dollinger, 2023). The provision of career education and guidance is not consistent, comprehensive or systematic in Australia, with substantial variability between schools and jurisdictions (DET, 2017). Federal public policies including the National Career Development Strategy and Future Ready: A Student Focused National Career Education Strategy (DET, 2020) have been developed to stimulate a more structured and cohesive approach. Nevertheless, careers education and guidance remain relatively uncoordinated and unstructured in Australian schooling.
22The Australian system of schooling provides substantial options for exercising educational choices. This is done through the wide range of subjects that are available to upper secondary students, as well as the wide range of schools from which households can choose to enrol their child. Accompanying this substantial freedom of educational choice, however, are several challenges for educational effectiveness and equity.
23First, choice of a school is constrained. Being admitted to a non-local government school is not assured and is up to the discretion of the school. In practice, this means that schools may not accept students with characteristics that are deemed undesirable, such as behavioural problems or learning difficulties. Admittance also depends on the availability of space for non-local students, and this is especially the case for government secondary schools in affluent neighborhoods, which are typically the most desirable for households that are choosing a non-local government school. Such schools frequently restrict non-local admissions to pupils with exceptional academic, sporting or artistic talent. Additional transportation costs may also prevent some households from choosing a non-local government school.
24In terms of choosing a private school, barriers are also present. These barriers are primarily financial. The lowest fee schools charge a few thousand dollars per year but the average annual cost is approximately 10k AUD, and many schools charge $20k AUD or higher. These fees are financially prohibitive for many Australian households.
25School choice is widespread in Australia, with plentiful options for many households, at least for those with resources. Among fellow member countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Australia has one of the highest levels of school choice and competition. This fact brings with it a certain cost, however, as it is associated with higher levels of school stratification and segregation, both of which are likely to be stunting the outcomes of students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Perry et al., 2024). These stunted outcomes are harmful for these students and their communities, but they also have negative implications for the larger society (Lamb et al., 2017).
26Second, curricular choices in upper secondary school are restricted in many schools. The number of subjects that can potentially be offered in any given jurisdiction is very large, but many schools are unable to offer a wide range of subjects. Moreover, differences between schools in terms of the type and number of curricular subjects offered are not random. The number of subjects that are offered in a school is patterned by the school’s sector (government or non-government), size, and socioeconomic composition (Perry & Southwell, 2014). Private schools and government schools with high socioeconomic compositions offer the largest number of subjects, and small schools with the lowest socioeconomic compositions, almost all of which are government schools, offer the least. This means that curricular choices are more available to students who reside in wealthy communities or who are able to pay fees to attend a private school.
27Third, vocational study pathways are not particularly well organised or available in Australia (DET, 2017). Many of the programs that are offered in secondary schools, which are the most convenient for school-aged students, are of low quality and/or lead to low-paying wages (Polesel, 2008). Young people may also study at a Tertiary and Further Education institution, but these institutions are typically designed for adult learners and are therefore not always well suited for secondary school-aged pupils. Young people can also study a vocational pathway via an apprenticeship, but again, these are also not easy to secure. Overall, vocational education pathways available to secondary school students are limited, difficult to navigate or secure.
28Greater provision of educational choices could increase educational equity and effectiveness in Australia. Skills shortages in the Australian labour market are endemic and severe. Skills shortages are routinely experienced by the healthcare sector, engineering, finance and accounting, construction trades, mining and many others. Skills shortages comprise both skilled trades as well as professional jobs requiring university degrees (DET, 2017). State/territory and federal governments are keen to improve the capacity of Australian schooling to help address these skills shortages. This means removing barriers that may be preventing young people from developing their talents and meeting their goals. Australia does not have the luxury of wasting human talent.
29One clear recommendation is to improve access to high quality vocational education pathways. In general, these pathways need to be much more developed and coordinated, especially for school-aged youths. High-quality vocational offerings are expensive for schools to provide, so planning and funding these pathways should be done centrally, by higher-level education authorities. One possibility would be for the education jurisdictions to plan a range of vocational pathways involving several schools, with each one focusing on a particular industry (e.g., automotive). Creating better vocational pathways in secondary schools will require additional funding, which could be released by ceasing state/territory public funding of high fee private schools.
30Another recommendation is to reform school funding mechanisms. The Australian federal and state/territory governments provide substantial public funding to private schools, for the purpose of promoting diverse school options (Perry, 2024). These funding mechanisms are promoting a stratified system of schooling with large differences between socially advantaged and disadvantaged schools. Indeed, Australia has one of the largest inequitable allocation of resources between socially disadvantaged and advantaged schools in the OECD. These large differences between schools are creating incentives and pressures for many families to choose a ‘good’ school, thereby leading to higher levels of school segregation and creating a vicious cycle which is difficult to break. One recommendation would be to provide public funding to private schools to the amount that these schools meet the federally defined per-pupil allocation. Private schools that charge fees in excess of this allocation would cease to receive any public funding. This funding could then be used to support the school experiences, opportunities and outcomes of students and schools who are currently underserved and under-resourced.
31Australia has a comprehensive primary and secondary education system, with one type of high school that provides choices for both academic and vocational curricula. All students study the same comprehensive national curriculum from Years 1–10 and then in the final two years of secondary school, students choose a vocational or academic pathway. A minority of students leave secondary school after Year 10 and either join the workforce, secure an apprenticeship, or attend a vocational tertiary institution. Students and their families choose curricular pathways based on student interest and aspirations. Teachers and schools provide advice, and often encourage students with weaker academic performance to select a vocational pathway in upper secondary school. This advice is provided in some instances as a way to reduce negative impacts on a school’s academic reputation, as school average academic achievement results are publicly reported.
32Education choices are also enacted in Australia through school choice. Australia has one of the highest rates of school choice and competition in the OECD. Australia has a large private school sector, with more than 40% of secondary students attending a private school. School choice is also enacted through the public school sector, as schools can admit students outside their catchment zone. School funding mechanisms promote choice because they are based on per-pupil allocations; thus, schools are rewarded for attracting students. Public funding is provided to all private schools, including faith-based and alternative philosophy schools. Private schools also charge fees, which can range substantially.
33In terms of education choices, Australia offers students and their families substantial diversity in terms of choice of school and choice of upper secondary curriculum subjects. These choices are constrained, however, by financial resources of families and schools. For example, the ability to choose a school of one’s choice is constrained by the ability to pay fees for a private school (the most prestigious of which are financially exclusive), reside within the catchment area of the desired public school, provide transportation to attend a non-local public school, or have sufficient academic, artistic or sporting talent to be admitted to an over-subscribed, non-local public school. Similarly, the capacity to choose a curricular subject in upper secondary school is shaped by the curricular offerings provided by the said school, which in turn are shaped by the school’s socioeconomic composition, sector, size and resourcing. All of these factors combine and exacerbate each other, with high-fee private schools and public schools in affluent neighbourhoods providing the greatest curricular choices and socially disadvantaged public schools providing the least. Finally, vocational educational offerings in secondary schools are not widely available or promoted, which means that exercising this choice requires substantial effort and resources from families.
34The Australian system of education provides many opportunities for exercising educational choice. There is a fair amount of flexibility and students and households are given plentiful options to exercise choices in terms of school attended and curriculum pathway selected. At the same time, however, these choices are undermined by education policies that have led to a stratified and segregated system of schooling. Finding ways to promote educational choices in a more equitable way will lead to better outcomes as well as better serve all students and families, not just those with superior resources.
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