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The contribution of 3D models to the study of stone monuments in the Maya area

L’apport de la photogrammétrie à l’étude des monuments en pierre dans l’aire maya
El aporte de la fotogrametría en el estudio de los monumentos de piedra en el área maya
Philippe Nondédéo, Julien Hiquet, Rémi Mereuze, Hemmauthé Goudiaby et Nikolai Grube

Résumés

L’aire maya est bien connue pour ses monuments sculptés en pierre calcaire, des monuments qui s’érodent facilement au fil des siècles, d’autant que les Mayas utilisaient plutôt des calcaires tendres pour sculpter éléments de décor et inscriptions présents sur stèles, autels et panneaux. Un travail systématique d’enregistrement de monuments considérés jusque-là comme lisses car sans reliefs visibles à l’œil nu a révélé, grâce à l’usage de la photogrammétrie et les différents traitements possibles qui peuvent être générés, toute une série de données nouvelles qui viennent enrichir nos connaissances sur l’histoire politique des cités mayas. Cette étude de cas est centrée sur une sélection de monuments du centre urbain maya de Naachtun (période Classique, 150-950 apr. J.-C.) et contient des données archéologiques, épigraphiques et historiques utiles. Notre objectif est également méthodologique et vise à rendre compte des traitements générés à partir d’enregistrements photographiques. Divers et riches, ces traitements peuvent être appliqués sur des monuments érodés et mettre en valeur les reliefs.

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Acknowledgments

The Naachtun Archaeological Project (2010-2026) is funded by the French Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs, the CNRS, the Pacunam Foundation, the Perenco Company, the LabEx DynamiTe, and the Simone and Cino del Duca Foundation. It is part of the Cemca activities in Central America, and fieldwork was undertaken with the permission of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia de Guatemala. We thank all the members of the Naachtun Project and all the workers from Uaxactun for their contribution and hard work. Finally, we want to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions.

Introduction

1The heart of the Maya civilization in Mexico and Guatemala lies in a lowland physiographic context, mainly located in a karstic zone (Figure 1). Limestone is thus the only available source of stone and sand for building construction and for the carving of public monuments (stela, altar, panel or stair). Prehispanic Maya society during the Classic period (150-950/1000 CE) experimented a system of government based upon sacred kingship, i.e. a society lead by powerful sovereigns, represented and named on stone monuments (Okoshi T. et al., 2021). Such rulers were organized in direct dynastic succession and each of them was included in a line going back to a single founding ancestor from whom their status and legitimacy were derived (Martin S. and N. Grube, 2008).

2To maintain their leadership over the other clans within the city and eliminate rivalry and competition, each ruler implemented a strategy based on an extreme “ritualization” of society, through repetitive and public ritual performances. Kings appeared as religious and political chiefs as well as privileged interlocutors of divine entities and guarantors of prosperity for their community (Baudez C., 2002). With all these cyclic ritual actions, rulers could also appear as “Masters of Time” for the next twenty years – as the twenty-year period, Katun in the Maya language, is the most important period of time ritually and politically (Stuart D., 1996). These ritual performances, most of which involved human sacrifices, needed to be set in stone in order to place each ruler’s actions or events within the history of their cities and in the line of the dynasty’s founder.

Figure 1: Map of the Maya area, locating Naachtun and some important lowland Maya centers in northern Peten

Figure 1: Map of the Maya area, locating Naachtun and some important lowland Maya centers in northern Peten

Credits: Map: J. F. Cuenot. Map sources: OpenStreetMap, ALOS World 3D-30m (AW3D) JAXA; Map projection system: WGS_1984_UTM_Zone_16N.

3Such conception of power and political theater (Inomata T., 2006) required the use of writing and iconography. In order to praise the deeds of the ajaw (the Maya ruler) in the longue durée, important biographical data were inscribed (names of the father, mother, even grandfather; enthronement, alliances, conquests…). This was part of their strategy of legitimacy vis-à-vis the royal court. In such a vertical and centralized society, we can easily imagine the key role played by stone monuments, as they personified power, expressed social status and were an appropriate vehicle for political ideology towards the local population. Most of these stone monuments were carved in poor-quality limestone and are now badly weathered, but they remain the main source of information for reconstructing the historical context and the many interactions between Maya cities (Martin S., 2020).

4Northern Peten area, which extends over northern Guatemala and the southern Campeche State of Mexico, is particularly well known for the poor quality of its dolomitic deposits, which makes it even more difficult to retrieve information on local dynasties. Furthermore, Northern Peten is among the most remote regions in the Maya area, with difficult access and limited trails leading to Maya settlements. Due to this context, documentation of stone monuments, sensitive to weathering and erosion, can be highly challenging, such as bringing to the field heavy, bulky and/or fragile equipment (i.e. scanners). To overcome these logistical constraints and to save the remaining inscriptions and iconographic motifs, a good alternative is the use of photographic surveys, which can be converted into 3D photogrammetric models. Such inexpensive method can provide high quality and extremely accurate models given the on-field conditions. Photogrammetry is a recording system with relative measurement of visible features based on a large number of photographic images taken from different angles of these visible features (Linder W., 2013). Along with other recording techniques such as laser scanning (which produces 3D models) or RTI (Reflectance Transformation Imagery, which only produces an interactive picture, allowing precise lighting control), it can be used to emphasize small details that are barely visible on the surface of recorded features (Frank et al., 2021). Compared to laser scanning and RTI, photogrammetry is less precise, particularly when small details are concerned, but its advantage is that it is cheap and does not require heavy equipment, which is appropriate in a remote environment like Naachtun’s. However, compared to RTI, photogrammetry diminishes surface details during the process (Porter et al., 2016).

5During the 2022 field season at the Classic Maya center of Naachtun in Northern Peten, Guatemala, we experimented and tested a photographic survey on a stone monument, Altar 8, first documented and considered to be plain by S. Morley (Morley S., 1937-38). The idea was to use a photogrammetric model in order to enhance small stone reliefs to check whether the monument had been carved in the past and whether it could provide new data on the origins of the Naachtun local dynasty. In view of the very positive results from Altar 8, which revealed new data on the first Naachtun Bat kings through iconography and inscriptions (Nondédéo P. et al., 2023), we applied the same method during the 2023 field season to record other early monuments, specifically Stela 22 and Stela C7, both located in Group C. We also tested new and innovative treatments intended to improve the quality and accuracy of the visualizations. In this paper, we show how some of these new treatments applied on photogrammetric models can provide new historical insights using, in particular, GIS tools and software.

The setting

6Naachtun is a large Maya regional capital founded at the end of the Late Preclassic period, circa 150 CE. It served as the seat of a powerful dynasty mentioned in various cities in Northern Peten and Southern Campeche during the Classic period (Grube N., 2005; Martin S., 2005; Nondédéo P. et al., 2021). This dynasty was responsible for the dedication of over 80 stone monuments (including stelae and altars), which have been sporadically documented during the twentieth century (Morley S., 1937-38; Ruppert K. and J. Denison, 1943) and more systematically since the 2000’s with the start of a Canadian project (Mathews P. and A. Parmington, 2005) and that of our project in 2010 (Cases I. and Lacadena A., 2014a, 2014b; Patrois J., 2020). Unfortunately, all of these monuments are now badly weathered, with only a few showing surviving inscriptions or iconography, leading most of them to be considered plain by early archeologists who visited Naachtun in the 1930’s. In addition, the now rapid erosion process of these monuments caused by lush vegetation and acid rain, makes it urgent to record and save as precisely as possible the remaining information before its complete disappearance.

7Naachtun is composed of three main monumental Groups, labelled A, B and C, which form the epicenter of the city, surrounded by a vast residential area (Figure 2). All in all, the urban area is about 2.5 km². Group C, the westernmost group of the city, represents the seat of the dynasty during the Early Classic period (150-550 CE) with its Triadic complex and royal funerary acropolis, Structure V. In 2023, fieldwork and stone monuments documentation activities focused on Group C and on some of its earliest stelae, in particular Stela 22 and Stela C7.

Figure 2: Map of Naachtun urban core with emphasis on the steles present in Group C

Figure 2: Map of Naachtun urban core with emphasis on the steles present in Group C

Credits: Map: Naachtun project, modified by P. Nondédéo.

Stela 22

8The first documented monument of the 2023 field season is Stela 22, an Early Classic monument associated with Altar 8 at the base of Structure III, a low platform located in Group C. Still in an upright position, Stela 22 was found north of Structure III. It is 2.98 m high (excluding the stela butt), 1.10 m wide and 0.55 m thick. Its front face shows no design, while the sides still bear inscriptions (Figures 3a and 3b), mostly in the lower part of the right (east) side. To compose photogrammetric models, a series of 18 photographs of the west side of the stela and 96 of the east side were taken (see below for the shootings strategy). In both cases, the photographs were shot in a stable, shadowed area, parallel to the flat surfaces of the stela. To achieve the sharpest image, a great depth of field was required, necessitating a short focal length. Therefore, we used a standard wide-angle lens (18 mm), setting the ISO to 400 to compensate for the relative darkness of the forest environment. As for any photogrammetric coverage, all photographs must overlap, but there is no need to overdo it. To obtain a good-resolution model useful for rendering the engraved glyphs, a few dozen photos are sufficient if they reasonably cover different angles of the stela’s sides. Its west side being completely eroded, the photogrammetry record was only acquired to get a general idea of the stela. The partially eroded east side, however, still showed a series of glyphs, some barely visible. As a result, we placed more effort in capturing as much data as possible given the field conditions. Based on personal experiences using both the popular photogrammetry software Agisoft Metashape (AgiSoft Metashape Professional—Version 2.0.3—Software 2023)1, and Reality Capture <www.capturingreality.com>, we favored the latter for its possibilities during the various steps of model production, especially when creating surfaces. This software also allows to slightly modify the intensity of noise reduction and smoothing.

Figure 3: Views of Stela 22. a) Front view taken from the North; b) Orthophotography of the west and east sides

Figure 3: Views of Stela 22. a) Front view taken from the North; b) Orthophotography of the west and east sides

Credits: a) Photography: J. Patrois; b) Orthophotography of the west and east sides: R. Méreuze.

9Carefully adjusting these parameters was key to finding a fine balance between a model that would have been too smooth to be read and one that would have been too noisy to extract useful information (Figure 4a). We then analyzed the modeled 3D surface using different methods, which we more thoroughly describe below, when we focus on the Stela C7. For the rendering of the 3D model, we used a treatment based on mesh visualization with the open-source software Meshlab (Cignoni et al., 2008), which offers excellent visualization tools for reading and interpreting the preserved inscriptions. We specifically employed the radiance scaling shader (Vergne et al., 2010), which enhances small details on the 3D surface.

Figure 4: a) Photogrammetry of Stela 22 using Meshlab software; b) Drawing of the preserved inscription from the 3D model

Figure 4: a) Photogrammetry of Stela 22 using Meshlab software; b) Drawing of the preserved inscription from the 3D model

Credits: a) H. Goudiaby and J. Hiquet; b) N. Grube.

10The reading of the partially preserved inscriptions (eight rows of two glyph blocks) by N. Grube revealed some crucial information that would have been impossible to read with the naked eye, given the weathering of the glyph blocks. To decipher fragments of this text, N. Grube employed various visualizations and lighting angles to reveal the glyphs. Using different 3D models and treatments (detailed below), he was able to combine them in layers with different levels of transparency using graphic software, outlining the contours of the main glyphs prior to reading and interpreting the text (Figure 4b). In Maya epigraphy, when dealing with such heavily eroded monuments, epigraphers often have to imagine the erosion process of each glyph block based on their general shape, in order to identify the likely hieroglyphic signs that nearly completely disappeared. In this regard, the use of 3D models can assist in reconstructing the erosion patterns of the glyphs. In this instance, following the name of the king, the owner and commissioner of the monument, Yajawte K’ihnich —one of the few rulers in Naachtun whose name came down to us, along with the one present on Stela 24 (Nondédéo P. et al., in press)—we were unable to decipher the likely emblem-glyph, despite having the 3D models at our disposal. The emblem-glyph serves as a title that identifies the political entities and dynasties in power within a specific Maya center. This king, Yajawte K’ihnich, is likely the same ruler mentioned on Stela 23, whose commemorating date is contemporaneous with Stela 22 and is also associated with Structure III. Typically, each ruler is linked to a specific building, although occasionally they may share a collective monumental space or complex for monument dedications. In such cases, these building complexes are often associated with the dynastic lineage, similar to the chapel of the dynastic founder built at Copan (Sedat D. and F. Lopez, 2004), or a royal funerary acropolis like the North Acropolis at Tikal (Loten S., 2003). Regarding Naachtun Structure III, a straightforward low platform lacking any dynastic attribution, we can infer it was linked to a single ruler, Yajawte K’ihnich. Another intriguing detail found in this partial inscription is a reference to the enthronement ceremony of this ruler.

11Stela 22 thus commemorates his accession to the throne. Although no specific calendar date is associated with this event due to the complete loss of the text’s initial part, typically starting with an Initial Series—a date expressed in the Long Count calendar—we can infer that this event occurred around 8.16.0.0.0, roughly between 357 and 361 CE. Altar 8 and Stela 23, both associated with Structure III, served as temporal markers for this brief period. It is worth noting that shortly thereafter, in 363 CE, another ruler ascended to power, as documented on Stela 24 (Nondédéo P. et al., 2019; Nondédéo P., in press).

12From this partial inscription, it is likely that Yajawte K’ihnich is the same ruler depicted on the right side of Altar 8, which forms a pair with Stela 22. The commissioner of the monument is depicted on the right side, while on the left, facing him, is an ancestor, likely the founder of the dynasty, from whom Yajawte K’ihnich inherited power and legitimacy (Nondédéo P. et al., 2023).

Figure 5: Monuments associated with the Triadic Complex

Figure 5: Monuments associated with the Triadic Complex

Credits: Map by C. Gillot, D. Michelet and J. Hiquet, modified by P. Nondédéo.

Stela C7

13Stela C7 deserves a more detailed discussion regarding the treatments applied to its 3D model to restore, as accurately as possible, the glyphic information revealed on its front face. C7 is one of the five monuments (alongside Stela C5, C6, Stela 24, and Altar 9) erected to the north, at the base of the Triadic Complex, in Group C (Figure 5).

14Stela C7 lies on the ground, its front face side down, and is broken into two main fragments, in addition to smaller ones. All these fragments were broken by the action of tree roots (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Stela C7 in its original state, with the front face down and covered by a ramón tree

Figure 6: Stela C7 in its original state, with the front face down and covered by a ramón tree

Credits: Photo: M. Colin.

15In 2015, we cut down the ramon trees and buried the monument under sand and stones to create rapid root decay. Suspecting the presence of inscriptions on its front face, we decided to unearth the monument in 2023, and reset the two main blocks, with the front face up, and to clean and gently brush all the stone fragments so as to get the cleanest surfaces possible. Once this work was done under the supervision of a restorer, we undertook a photographic survey totalizing 120 shots (always in color and natural daylight) in order to create a 3D model for each fragment. The number of pictures is larger than for Stela 22, not only because the surface we covered is larger, but also because the four largest fragments were reconstructed individually before the 3D models were assembled together (Figure 7). The inscription of Stela C7 comprises 36 glyph blocks which could be deciphered, except around the fracture zones. In order to restore the glyphic information uncovered on the front face as accurately as possible, we conducted visualization and analysis through two distinct approaches. One method involved a conventional technique in order to interactively enhance the model’s appearance, using Meshlab (Cignoni et al., 2008) and its various shader effects, particularly “Radiance Scaling” (Vergne et al., 2010), which amplifies contrast and accentuates details for improved visibility. This interactive approach facilitated the exploration and close examination of the models. However, stela C7 posed challenges beyond the capabilities of this conventional method. Although Radiance Scaling proved valuable for highlighting small details, we needed a more robust and systematic method for revealing partially erased details.

Figure 7. Example of the camera position for the shooting of the lower fragment of Stela C7

Figure 7. Example of the camera position for the shooting of the lower fragment of Stela C7

Credits: Model realized by R. Méreuze using Reality Capture.

16Consequently, we opted to utilize Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques. We used the RVT Toolbox (Kokalj and Somrak, 2019) to explore the stela surface as if it were akin to a LiDAR dataset (or any dense topographical information). The most useful analysis was Simple Local Model Relief (SLMR)––which enhances small topographical details or irregularities compared to global trends––and multi-orientation hillshading, which computes shadows from multiple directions into a single multi-band raster.

17For SLMR visualization we conducted two analyses at 20 cm and 50 cm resolutions. For multi-oriented hillshading, we produced a model with 32 light directions and an inclination of origin at 30 degrees. All of these visualizations were then stacked, either as different layers or, in some cases, as one merged image, such as a shaded (from only one direction) colored SLRM. The multiplicity and overlapping of these new layers were a great way to discover new features on the stela. Meshlab was then used for the reconstruction of Stela C7, that is to manually reunite the different fragments with a very satisfying precision (Figure 8).

Figure 8: a) Photogrammetry of stela C7 using RVT toolbox (multi-orientation); b) Stela C7 highlighting the assemblage of the different fragments and the sections of the text deciphered using Meshlab software and RVT visualizations

Figure 8: a) Photogrammetry of stela C7 using RVT toolbox (multi-orientation); b) Stela C7 highlighting the assemblage of the different fragments and the sections of the text deciphered using Meshlab software and RVT visualizations

Credits: R. Méreuze.

18With the array of treatments and visualizations offered by the RVT toolbox, our epigrapher was able to decipher more sections of this inscription than initially possible with a basic Meshlab model alone. Firstly, using the Meshlab model, it became possible to identify and read the first eight glyphs arranged in two columns at the top left corner. These glyphs denote the dedication date of the monument: 9.3.13.0.0 (November 24, 507), placing it within the Early Classic period. The dedication of this monument took place a little more than a century after that of Stela 24, located just 10 meters to the west. This time lag between the two monuments provides great insight into the role played by the Triadic Complex over time and across the generations of rulers. With the new generated 3D model, we were able to identify new events, notably during the inauguration ceremony of this monument when a ritual deposit was performed and sealed. Unfortunately, this deposit described on Stela C7 was not uncovered during the excavation of its butt.

19Then follows the mention of a large ‘distance number’ of about 400 years––a ‘distance number’ indicates the number of days completed in the past from a reference date, here the date of inauguration of the stela in 507 CE––, which situates another action that took place circa 100 CE, that is close to the founding date of the city of Naachtun. This action consisted in the sealing of a first ritual deposit. This rhetoric suggests that the dedication of the stela in 507, with its associated deposit, was in fact the repetition and the reiteration of prior ritual performances. Another important date deciphered in the inscription, which was also revealed thanks to the new 3D models, is the early date of 8.3.13.0.0 (113 CE), which is intended to recall the accession ceremony of an early king, possibly the founder of the dynasty (Nondédéo P. et al., in press). Finally, the text ends at the bottom right with two glyphs which were perfectly readable with the initial Meshlab model. It mentions the arrival of an unnamed Naachtun ruler at a place called Chicha’, the toponym of an unknown place or city which played an important role in the narratives of Preclassic and Early Classic times. It is mentioned in the inscriptions of Dzibanche, Tikal, Palenque, Yaxchilan, Copan or Calakmul, to cite just a few, and various local dynasties mention it as the place of origin of their ancestors and founders (Tokovinine A., 2013: 79, 119-120). Some scholars consider it was a mythic and sacred place while others suggest it was an existing major Preclassic center, such as El Mirador or Nakbe (Grube N., 2004: 131). The fact that the C7 inscription mentions “he had arrived at Chicha’” suggests it is probably a real city. As the verb used to mean he had arrived (“hulliy”) refers exclusively to historical contexts and actions made by rulers, we can infer that Chicha’ is an existing city in northern Peten, probably not too far from Naachtun. El Mirador and Nakbe, two important Preclassic urban centers also located in close proximity to Naachtun (15-20 km, see Figure 1) would be good possibilities as the seat of Chicha’. While still partial, all this new information was obtained by generating new refined 3D models using Meshlab, GIS tools and software.

Conclusion

20These examples from a remote center in the Maya lowlands of the Peten tropical forest demonstrate how photogrammetry and 3D models have become pivotal tools for archaeologists in their attempt to document and save Maya inscriptions and iconography on stone monuments. This technique can also be applied across various fields, material cultures, and in other regions around the world. Considering the diverse methods for data treatment and processing, it offers a cost-effective approach that yields satisfactory results, even on eroded surfaces. In this respect, the use of the RVT toolbox, adapted from the GIS to the 3D Model created from photogrammetry, provides new visualizations and images that help understand ancient texts and iconography. For the study of Maya limestone monuments and the knowledge of ancient Maya society, this approach represents a significant advancement, which can be combined with other sources of information from the archaeological sciences. In the case of Naachtun, it helps us understand the origin of its first Bat kings and the founding processes of its local dynasty.

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Table des illustrations

Titre Figure 1: Map of the Maya area, locating Naachtun and some important lowland Maya centers in northern Peten
Crédits Credits: Map: J. F. Cuenot. Map sources: OpenStreetMap, ALOS World 3D-30m (AW3D) JAXA; Map projection system: WGS_1984_UTM_Zone_16N.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-1.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 1,0M
Titre Figure 2: Map of Naachtun urban core with emphasis on the steles present in Group C
Crédits Credits: Map: Naachtun project, modified by P. Nondédéo.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-2.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 322k
Titre Figure 3: Views of Stela 22. a) Front view taken from the North; b) Orthophotography of the west and east sides
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-3.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 442k
Crédits Credits: a) Photography: J. Patrois; b) Orthophotography of the west and east sides: R. Méreuze.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-4.png
Fichier image/png, 1,4M
Titre Figure 4: a) Photogrammetry of Stela 22 using Meshlab software; b) Drawing of the preserved inscription from the 3D model
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-5.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 417k
Légende Credits: a) H. Goudiaby and J. Hiquet; b) N. Grube.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-6.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 153k
Titre Figure 5: Monuments associated with the Triadic Complex
Crédits Credits: Map by C. Gillot, D. Michelet and J. Hiquet, modified by P. Nondédéo.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-7.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 304k
Titre Figure 6: Stela C7 in its original state, with the front face down and covered by a ramón tree
Crédits Credits: Photo: M. Colin.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-8.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 402k
Titre Figure 7. Example of the camera position for the shooting of the lower fragment of Stela C7
Crédits Credits: Model realized by R. Méreuze using Reality Capture.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-9.png
Fichier image/png, 269k
Titre Figure 8: a) Photogrammetry of stela C7 using RVT toolbox (multi-orientation); b) Stela C7 highlighting the assemblage of the different fragments and the sections of the text deciphered using Meshlab software and RVT visualizations
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-10.png
Fichier image/png, 3,3M
Crédits Credits: R. Méreuze.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/docannexe/image/19145/img-11.png
Fichier image/png, 1,6M
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Référence électronique

Philippe Nondédéo, Julien Hiquet, Rémi Mereuze, Hemmauthé Goudiaby et Nikolai Grube, « The contribution of 3D models to the study of stone monuments in the Maya area »IdeAs [En ligne], 24 | 2024, mis en ligne le 01 octobre 2024, consulté le 12 février 2025. URL : http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/ideas/19145 ; DOI : https://0-doi-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/10.4000/12hsh

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Auteurs

Philippe Nondédéo

Archéologie des Amériques (UMR 8096, CNRS/Université de Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne), Centre Malher, 9 rue Malher, 75004 Paris.
philippe.nondedeo[at]cnrs.fr

Julien Hiquet

Postdoctoral fellow of the Foundation Pacunam and affiliated member of Archéologie des Amériques (UMR 8096, CNRS/Université de Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne), Centre Malher, 9 rue Malher, 75004 Paris.
julien.hiquet[at]hotmail.fr

Rémi Mereuze

Archéologie des Amériques/Archéologie de la Protohistoire européenne (UMR 8096/UMR 8215, CNRS/Université de Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne), Centre Malher, 9 rue Malher, 75004 Paris.
remi.mereuze[at]cnrs.fr

Hemmauthé Goudiaby

Archaïos, 20 rue des Gravilliers, 75003 Paris.
mursili[at]live.fr

Nikolai Grube

Institut für Archäologie und Kulturanthropologie Abteilung für Altamerikanistik und Ethnologie Universität Bonn, Oxfordstr. 15, 53111 Bonn
ngrube[at]uni-bonn.de

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