Navigation – Plan du site

AccueilNuméros55VariaLakṣacaitya paubhās. Pictorial re...

Varia

Lakṣacaitya paubhās. Pictorial representations of a Newar Buddhist ritual performance

Les paubhā du Lakṣacaitya. Représentations picturales d’un rituel bouddhique néwar
Kunsang Namgyal-Lama

Résumés

Cet article concerne un rituel appelé « Lakṣacaitya » (littéralement « cent mille caitya ») accompli par les bouddhistes néwars de la vallée de Kathmandu au Népal, au cours duquel sont fabriqués de très nombreux caitya ou stūpa miniatures. Hormis l’intérêt des procédures rituelles dans le cadre d’observances religieuses (skt. vrata), annuelles ou occasionnelles, l’exécution du rituel Lakṣacaitya a été, pour certains dévots, l’occasion de commanditer une peinture sur toile (new. paubhā) commémorant sa réalisation. Dans le monde népalais, peu de pratiques religieuses ont fait l’objet de représentations picturales de ce type. Ces peintures attestent non seulement de l’ancienneté de cette pratique bouddhique au Népal, mais elles constituent également des documents visuels uniques, en particulier pour les paubhā des xviiie-xixe siècles, dont on ne trouve pas d’équivalent dans l’art bouddhique indien ou tibétain.

Haut de page

Dédicace

In the loving memory of Manik Lal Shrestha and Silu Singh

Texte intégral

I would like to express my deep gratitude to Manju Shree Ratna Bajracharya and Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya for providing me with precious clarifications and for making available photographs and short extracts from films they made in 2010 that I was able to use in this article. I would also like to heartily thank late Prof. Manik Lal Shrestha for his kind help and constant encouragement and support, and I deeply regret that I wasn’t able to finish this study earlier. I am very much indebted to Alexander von Rospatt for proofreading this paper and for providing detailed feedback, corrections and valuable suggestions. A version of this paper was presented at the joint Berkeley-CEH/CNRS Workshop “New Directions in Himalayan Studies”, held at the University of California, Berkeley, in March 2019. I am grateful to the conveners, Stéphane Gros and A. von Rospatt, for inviting me to participate and the Center for Himalayan Studies for its support. My warmest thanks also go to Dr. Naresh Man Bajracharaya and to Dr. Tri Ratna Manandhar for their explanations and patience, to Puspa Ratna Shakya, Todd Lewis, and especially to Krishna Das Manandhar for his friendship, his help and for having introduced me to Manju Shree Ratna Bajracharya and his family. Last, but not the least, I am particularly grateful to Rémi Chaix for his proofreading and numerous comments of this paper and to Bernadette Sellers for having kindly checked, corrected and greatly improved my English. All remaining mistakes are mine alone.

  • 1 Cf. Pal 1967, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1985, 1996, 2001, 2003a and 2003b.

1The Newars of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal are well known throughout the Himalayas for the quality of their artistic productions whether sculptures or paintings. The study of this artwork, which began more than fifty years ago thanks to the pioneering work and publications of Stella Kramrisch (1964), Pratapaditya Pal1 and Mary Slusser (2005a, 2005b), particularly regarding scroll paintings on cotton cloth called paubhā, revealed early on its diversity and its iconographic and stylistic complexity. Over the last few years, access to a large number of digital images of Nepalese artwork housed in different museums or private collections, both locally and abroad, has enabled the constitution of more consistent corpora, providing comprehensive overviews to help understand the history of these pictorial productions.

  • 2 This ritual is related to the life-cycle rites performed by Newar families, either Hindu or Buddhis (...)

2Paubhās are often commissioned to commemorate the completion of religious practices whether Buddhist or Hindu. Thus, their production is generally related to a specific ritual dedicated to a particular deity, for example, in the Buddhist context, Avalokiteśvara or the goddess Vasudhārā, of which there exist a large number of paintings as well as sculptures. The performance of the Bhīmarathārohaṇa ceremony2 and the Lakṣacaitya ritual have also provided an occasion for commissioning commemorative artworks, in particular paubhās with original and unique compositions in Himalayan art history. These paintings not only attest to the popularity of these religious practices in Newar culture, but also to the creativity of the artists over the centuries.

  • 3 The terms stupa and caitya are often used as synonyms and refer to both built stupa/caitya and mini (...)

3This paper will focus more specifically on paubhās related to the Lakṣacaitya ritual during which lay devotees make thousands of tiny stupa or caitya3 models out of clay by using moulds. This practice of Indian origin is based on a Buddhist conception according to which the edification of a stupa or its reproduction, even of a very small size and from common materials such as earth, clay or sand, is a virtuous deed generating immeasurable merit (Skt. puṇya). Buddhist texts emphasise the multiple benefits one can obtain by making these images, such as an increasing life span, achieving a good rebirth or obtaining wealth and prosperity. In this perspective, the adoption of techniques of moulding and stamping to reproduce stupa images in large numbers has been considered one of the most effective ritual means of accumulating merit and progressing along the path to Enlightenment.

  • 4 The month of Gũlā coincides with the bright fortnight of the lunar month of śrāvaṇa (Skt. śrāvaṇśuk (...)
  • 5 The term vrata (pronounced/spelled “brata/barta” in Nepali) refers to an optional ritual practice o (...)
  • 6 One of the central religious activities for Buddhist laymen that takes place towards the end of the (...)
  • 7 This is the most important textual authority in Newar Buddhism and recounts the miraculous origins (...)
  • 8 For more details concerning the activities carried out during Gũlā (including the Lakṣacaitya ritua (...)
  • 9 For guṭhīs, see Lewis 1984, pp. 166-167; Toffin 1984, pp. 177-180; Gellner 1992, pp. 231-250.

4The Lakṣacaitya ritual, literally meaning “hundred thousand caityas”, is performed by some Newar Buddhist communities, usually around August during the traditional month of Gũlā4. This period, considered to be auspicious, is dedicated to merit-making activities and the fulfilment of specific religious observances (Skt. vrata)5 under the guidance of vajrācārya priests. During this holy month, Buddhist lay devotees take part more diligently in different religious activities, such as visiting temples and sacred shrines, making offerings of flowers, light, incense and food as well as donations6. They also perform in a more intense manner than usual different devotional rites, such as circumambulating stupas, especially the great stupa of Svayambhū, located on a hilltop west of Kathmandu. For Newar Buddhists, the Svayambhū stupa (also called Svayambhū mahācaitya) is the most important monument and the focal point of their religious practices. Its mythical origins, linked to the creation of the Kathmandu Valley, is narrated in the Svayambhūpurāṇa7, a fundamental Buddhist text, which is recited daily in monasteries during Gũlā. Other religious texts may also be recited during this holy month, especially the Pañcarakṣā-sūtra, the Prajñāpāramitā-sūtra, the Ārya-Nāmasaṅgīti, as well as popular narrative texts, such as the Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna. This is also a festival period for music-making groups (Skt. bājan) that go on daily pilgrimages to Svayambhū mahācaitya and to other Buddhist sites, offering devotional music using traditional instruments, including a buffalo horn. Among the religious practices undertaken during this month-long festival8 is the Lakṣacaitya-vrata, which may be celebrated either individually within the family in private houses or collectively as a group celebration in Buddhist monasteries (New. bāhā, bahī), especially through local socio-religious associations called guṭhīs9 that organise these activities.

  • 10 Numerous consecration deposits (small metal statues and metal stupas, inscribed bricks, coins, clay (...)
  • 11 This practice is very popular in Tibet where it was introduced around the 8th century and took on e (...)

5It would appear that the completion of the Lakṣacaitya-vrata was the occasion for certain devotees to have scroll paintings executed to commemorate its celebration. Commissioning this type of painting is not a requirement but it seems that this ritual was a relatively popular iconographic subject in the history of Newar paintings, at least since the end of the 14th century. However, the ritual of making miniature clay caityas was introduced in Nepal long before this period, by the 11th century, as evidenced by the circulation of ritual texts prescribing this type of Buddhist practice, such as the Kudṛṣṭinirghātana and the Ādikarmapradīpa (as we will see below), and probably even earlier as attested to by the discovery of several clay tablets stamped with stupa images associated with the Pratītyasamutpāda formula and small clay sealings with the same stanza, which are generally made in the same ritual context. Indeed, these clay tablets were uncovered in Deopatan near Paśupatināth (Slusser 2005b, pp. 606-607, fig. 18) and the stupa of Cābahil during its renovation in 2003 (Darnal 2005, pp. 52, 71, figs 8-12)10. Their discovery in the Kathmandu Valley indicates either local production or importation, at least from the second half of the Licchavi period (7th or 8th century). Furthermore, this ritual of making miniature clay stupas also spread from India to other parts of the Buddhist world, where it has undergone more or less important developments, in Burma and Thailand, and especially in Tibet where the ritual of making tsha tshas is still very common today11.

6Since the 1960s, paubhās depicting the Lakṣacaitya-vrata have been sporadically published in a few art catalogues, but they have never been studied in relation to the performance of the ritual itself or in comparison with other paintings about the same iconographic theme. In recent years, the online diffusion of paubhā images housed in different museums and private collections, as well as those displayed by auction houses, has made it possible to compile a larger inventory of these paintings, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding of their compositional, iconographic and stylistic features.

7In order to show the interest and complexity of these paubhās, it is necessary to first introduce the origin of the Lakṣacaitya ritual and the instructions for making miniature clay caityas, as mentioned in textual sources. In addition, observation of the performance of this ritual in present-day Newar Buddhist communities in the Kathmandu Valley is also necessary as it clarifies certain aspects of the ritual procedures prescribed in textual sources. In the light of these elements, I will give an iconographic description and analysis of the paubhās depicting the Lakṣacaitya following a chronological and stylistic approach.

Origin and prescriptions of the Lakṣacaitya-vrata in textual sources

  • 12 According to Tuladhar-Douglas (2007, pp. 47-48), several Garland texts, such as the Mahajjātakamālā(...)
  • 13 These collections are not always exhaustive but may regularly contain several works such as the Suv (...)
  • 14 Several manuscripts of this text are kept in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (cf. Mitra 1882, pp. 229 (...)

8The Lakṣacaitya ritual appears to have been an established religious practice around the 15th century because its performance is recommended in several Nepalese textual sources of the avadānamālā (garland of edifying tales) genre of literature12. However, it seems to have undergone significant textual and ritual developments towards the 18th and 19th centuries. Indeed, most texts dedicated to this practice date back to this later period and have circulated under different titles as stand-alone texts or as part of the Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna and the Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna. The two latter works, also pertaining to the corpus of Nepalese narrative literature, focus on the principles of karmic retribution and the praise of observances related to caitya worship (Skt. caityavratānuśaṃsā). There exist different manuscript versions of these two avadānas, written both in Sanskrit and in Newari, which are frequently included in collections entitled Vratāvadānamālā (Garland of avadānas [pertaining to] observances), compiling stories that illustrate the importance of undertaking certain religious observances13. The Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna14, which calls itself a “story of the Buffalo Horn [pertaining to] the Hundred Thousand caityas observance (Lakṣacaityavrata-Śṛṅgabherīkathā)”, contains a first part describing the Lakṣacaitya ritual. According to Mitra:

  • 15 For an English translation of a modern version of the Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna (Buffalo horn-blowing tale (...)

The first rite consists in dedicating one or more model chaityas daily, till the number comes up to a hundred thousand. The models may be of cow-dung, clay, sandstone, or metal according to the means of the dedicator. The direction for this rite had been originally given by Vipaśyi to a prince named Pradīpaketu. When the above rite is performed for a month from the 1st of Śrāvaṇa (July-August), with the accompaniment of the music from a golden horn and other musical instruments it is called Śṛṅgabherī. (Mitra 1882, pp. 229-230)15

  • 16 Henri-Léon Feer (1901) was the first to study this text from a manuscript kept at the Bibliothèque (...)
  • 17 According to Rajapatirana (1974, Part 1, p. xxx): “with the discovery of S [Sanskrit palm-leaf manu (...)
  • 18 The Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna was translated into Tibetan by Dharmaśrībhadra (c. 10th-11th century) and Ri (...)

9Regarding the Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna16, which was already circulating around the 11th century according to an Indian palm-leaf manuscript preserved in Tibet17, it also includes, in its later Nepalese version, an additional introductory chapter entitled Lakṣacaityasamutpatti (The Origin of the hundred thousand caityas), which deals with the origin and the ritual procedures for the hundred thousand caityas observance (Lakṣacaitya-vrata). This text seems to have been associated with the Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna sometime around the 18th century, as it is not included in the aforementioned earlier Indian version kept in Tibet or in its canonical Tibetan translation18 also dating back to the 11th century.

  • 19 The discourse delivered by the Buddha Śākyamuni is embedded within successive narrative framings fo (...)
  • 20 The version of the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti on which Rajapatirana relies contains only abbreviated for (...)
  • 21 This term makes reference to the five different cow products: milk, curd, clarified butter (Nep. gh (...)

10According to the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti, it is the Buddha Śākyamuni, taking example from one of his predecessors, the Buddha Vipaśyin, who would have advocated the performance of the Lakṣacaitya-vrata19. Conjuring up in the sky a large stupa made of precious stones surrounded by a hundred thousand other ones, he would have expounded to his audience, in particular to the monk Sucetana, the merits and the benefits generated by the act of creating and worshipping these monuments. An important part of the text deals with the instructions given by the Buddha Śākyamuni regarding the ritual of making a hundred thousand caityas from clay (Skt. mṛttikānirmitalakṣacaityavratavidhi). It describes a series of ritual prescriptions that devotees must follow over several days and, in particular, a codified procedure comprising several stages for the making of clay caityas punctuated by the recitation of specific formulas (Rajapatirana 1974, Part 1, p. 139; Part 3, p. 115-119)20. Thus, it is stated that, on the day prior to the ceremony, the devotee who wishes to perform this practice should start to prepare the ritual site by establishing the ceremonial area (Skt. dharmaśālā). They should worship the images of the Three Jewels and observe dietary restrictions or fast during the night (Rajapatirana 1974, Part 3, p. 116). The next day, after having bathed early in the morning and donned clean garments, they should knead clay brought from a pure field and mix it with water containing the five precious substances (Skt. pañcaratna) and the five products from the cow (Skt. pañcagavya)21. The clay should be blessed and empowered by repetition of the Vairocana dhāraṇī twenty-one times directly over it. Then, while chanting “oṃ vasudhe svāhā”, the devotee must take a lump of clay that they shape into a small ball with a pointed top, while reciting “oṃ vajrodbhavāya svāhā”. With the mantra “oṃ araje viraje svāhā”, the lump of clay is coated with oil and introduced into the mould to the formula “oṃ vajradhātugarbhe svāhā”. The text then prescribes to strike the mould so that the image of the caitya is imprinted on the clay, as the devotee recites “oṃ vajramudgarākoṭana svāhā”. The excess clay is removed while the formula “oṃ vajrakarttī svāhā” is pronounced. Then, while reciting “oṃ dharmadhātugarbhe svāhā”, the devotee inserts five precious substances, gold or unhusked barley grains into the caitya before extracting it from the mould while chanting the formula “oṃ dharmarate svāhā” and placing it on a clean stand. And lastly, the caitya should be worshipped by uttering the spell “oṃ supratiṣṭhitavajra svāhā”. At the end, the devotee has to present various offerings such as flowers, food, incense and lamps, as well as songs and sounds from different instruments, including those of a horn, a drum and a conch. The Buddha Śākyamuni specifies to Sucetana that the ritual is called the “hundred thousand caityas” (Skt. lakṣacaitya) when that number of caityas has been made (Rajapatirana 1974, Part 1, p. 140; Part 3, p. 117). If it had been ten million, the ritual would have been named the [observance of the] “ten million caityas” (Skt. koicaitya). The Lakṣacaityasamutpatti also stipulates that according to the devotee’s ability, they can make one, three, five, ten, a hundred, a thousand, a million or ten million caityas depending on the objective they have committed themselves to, and over a period of time that they themselves have determined.

  • 22 See manuscript no. B, 43 of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (cf. Mitra 1882, pp. 280-282, dated 1784 (...)
  • 23 Cf. Filliozat 1941, p. 83, Sanscrit 137 (dated c. 1836).
  • 24 Cf. Filliozat 1941, pp. 82-83, Sanscrit 135 and Sanscrit 136 A (spelled Saccakatāvadāna), also date (...)
  • 25 Cf. Matsunami 1965, pp. 145, 236, Manuscript no. 407, dated 1708 (N.S. 829).
  • 26 Cf. Cowell & Eggeling 1876, pp. 11-12, Manuscript no. 11, dated 1796 (N.S. 916).
  • 27 We find sarvvakatāanavidhi in the Kudṛṣṭinirghātana (Shastri 1927, pp. 7-8) and sarvakatāḍanavidhi(...)
  • 28 It is worth noting that the designation sarvvakatāḍanā is also found in the Caityapuṅgava (cf. Mitr (...)
  • 29 This period was also an important turning point in the spread of this Buddhist practice in Tibet, p (...)

11A similar narrative and ritual prescriptions for making clay caityas can also be found in another text entitled Caityapuṅgava22, of which several versions also circulated during the 18th and 19th centuries under unusual Sanskrit titles: Saccakratāvadāna23, Saccakaāvadāna24, Saccakatāanāvadāna25 or Sarvakatāanāvadāna26. For the latter, it is interesting to note that it recalls the name of a caitya-moulding ritual found in earlier Sanskrit works, dating from around the 11th century, such as the Kudṛṣṭinirghātana of Advayavajra (Shastri 1927; Wallis 2003) and the Ādikarmapradīpa of Anupamavajra (La Vallée Poussin 1898, pp. 162-232), two manuals dealing with practices to be performed daily by newly initiated Buddhist lay practitioners (Skt. upāsaka). Among these practices, the sarvakatāanavidhi27 is devoted to the different stages of moulding clay caityas, punctuated by the recitation of almost the same mantras. The stages are also similar to those advocated in the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti and the Caityapuṅgava28, even though there is no mention of making a hundred thousand caityas. This clearly attests to the fact that a ritual of moulding clay caityas, without determining a number such as “hundred thousand” was already known in the Nepalese context at least since the 11th century29.

  • 30 Tuladhar-Douglas also states that “All three of these are listed in Amṛtānanda’s summary of the per (...)

12An examination of these various textual sources shows that the Lakṣacaitya ritual was met with a certain degree of popularity in the 18th and 19th centuries. The addition of an introductory chapter dedicated to the origins of the ritual and its efficiency, within the Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna and the Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna, reflects not only some revival of interest in this ritual at that time but possibly also a desire to bestow some authority on its practice by associating it with these āvadānas. This assumption seems to be further confirmed by the fact that the Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna and the Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna are frequently incorporated into textual collections of the Vratāvadānamālā, which also comprises several other texts recounting the stories and the benefits generated by the fulfilment of certain ritual observances, particularly the Upoṣadha-vrata (dedicated to Amoghapāśa-lokeśvara) and the Vasudhārā-vrata (dedicated to the goddess of prosperity). These two vratas and the Lakṣacaitya one are, according to Tuladhar-Douglas, the only three of the many available vratas recommended by various avadānamālā texts for performance by modern Newar Buddhists (Tuladhar-Douglas 2007, pp. 47-48)30. He also points out that the Svayambhūpurāṇa does not appear to support the Lakṣacaitya-vrata directly. According to Tuladhar-Douglas: “This suggests that the Lakṣacaitya ritual is not part of the original cult surrounding Svayambhū [mahācaitya] itself” (Tuladhar-Douglas 2007, p. 47, n. 16). As we will see, this seems to be also corroborated by the depictions on paubhās.

The Lakṣacaitya-vrata in the contemporary context

  • 31 Although this optional ritual is usually performed during Gũlā, it can also be carried out at other (...)
  • 32 The Newar term dyaḥ (or dyo), equivalent to the Sanskrit term deva, is translated as “god/deity” an (...)
  • 33 There is no severe restriction on the consumption of meat and alcohol but devotees undertaking the (...)

13The Newars generally perform the Lakṣacaitya ritual during the holy month of Gũlā dedicated to various religious activities and observances31. I had the opportunity of observing this ritual on several occasions between 2010 and 2019, in Kathmandu and in Bhaktapur. In Newar Buddhist communities, this ritual seems to be accomplished by certain groups such as Vajrācārya, Urāy-Tuladhar, Manandhar, and Jyāpū. It seems that Śākya and Kansakar also perform it, although not within guṭhīs, according to some informants. The ritual is locally known as “dyaḥ thāyegu” (making/moulding the deity)32, “luchidyo thāyegu” (moulding a hundred thousand deities), or more precisely “cībādyaḥ thāyegu”, which specifies caitya moulding. Newars also refer to “lakha-caitya” for “lakṣacaitya”. Lay devotees observing this practice, especially womenfolk, perform it either individually in their homes or collectively in monasteries by making clay miniature caityas daily during the Gũlā period. Devotees undertaking the vrata may additionally observe several days of fasting or follow certain dietary restrictions33.

  • 34 These are grains of paddy rice from which the husk has been removed by hand; the grains must not be (...)
  • 35 In the past, guṭhīs also owned land from which clay could be extracted. Today, the purchase of clay (...)

14The ritual is performed under the supervision of the vajrācārya Tantric priest and his assistants who possess knowledge of mantras and of how to set up ritual devices. Here I will briefly describe the Lakṣacaitya ritual as observed in the contemporary context. Before the beginning of the celebration, members of guṭhīs or families generally gather the necessary materials, such as the special dark grey clay (New. hakucha), moulds, as well as husked paddy grains (New. akhe/akhyay)34 especially prepared for ritual purposes. In the past, there was an abundant supply of clay on riverbanks (fig. 1) and in fields, but this resource is now becoming scarcer due to the significant urbanisation of the Kathmandu Valley35. It can, however, be bought in the Kalanki, Balku, Mhepi or Sitapaila area west of Kathmandu, where there are still some places where it can be extracted, as well as in Thimi, Bhaktapur and Banepa.

Figure 1. Digging up clay from the riverbanks

Figure 1. Digging up clay from the riverbanks

© Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010

15The moulds are generally made of copper-based alloys and are very small in size, which is a Newar feature (fig. 2). The inside has the shape of the figure to be moulded, usually that of a tiny caitya, while the outside bears no decoration. To facilitate its handling, a wooden handle is usually added to the small mould. Other types of moulds for making images of deities (in the shape of plaques or moulded in the round) are also used, including Tibetan tsha tsha moulds.

Figure 2. Small metal moulds in the shape of tiny caityas

Figure 2. Small metal moulds in the shape of tiny caityas

© Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, Bhaktapur, 2019

  • 36 When the ritual is performed in a private context, the priest is generally the family priest (Skt. (...)
  • 37 Although the texts mention the insertion of the five precious substances and the five cow products (...)

16Prior to the actual caityas-making process, a series of preliminary rituals are performed by the vajrācārya36 in order to obtain permission to use the collected earth and to purify it (Skt. bhūmi-śodhana). The clay is then beaten with a mallet (fig. 3) and kneaded with clean water to obtain a homogeneous paste37. On the day of the ritual, the vajrācārya has to purify and bless the clay by reciting the Vairocana dhāraṇī twenty-one times while touching it (fig. 4).

Figure 3. Beating of the clay

Figure 3. Beating of the clay

© Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010

Figure 4. Purification and blessing of the clay

Figure 4. Purification and blessing of the clay

© Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010

  • 38 Short documentary films made for the exhibition “Dharma and Punya. Buddhist Ritual Art of Nepal” (F (...)
  • 39 Ritual texts generally recommend striking the mould at this stage but, in the Newar context, due to (...)
  • 40 According to Dr. Tri Ratna Manandhar (personal communication, 11 May 2010): “We put akhe inside all (...)

17Pieces of clay are then distributed to all the participants in the vrata. Sitting in rows, they all have in front of them a small tile on which are placed lumps of soft clay, as well as two small cups containing oil and consecrated paddy grains (figs 5, 6). The vajrācārya instructs participants about a series of ritual actions and on how to recite the appropriate mantras at each stage of the making process38. Participants start by taking a small lump of clay and by shaping it into a cone with a pointed top to facilitate its introduction into the mould. The pointed top is coated with oil before being introduced into the tiny mould (which may also be smeared with oil beforehand). Once the clay has been pressed into the mould39, the excess is removed by wiping the outer rim of the mould in a circular motion. Before taking out the miniature caitya from the mould, a paddy grain over which mantras were recited is inserted into the base of it (fig. 6). This essential deposit of a mantra infused in a paddy grain is supposed to give “life” (Skt. jiva) to the clay image40. The caitya is then taken out of the mould and placed on the tile, or sometimes on a pipal (ficus religiosa) leaf, with those that have already been made. Participants repeat these ritual actions according to the number of images they wish to produce daily, from about ten to several hundred.

Figure 5. Making of miniature caityas

Figure 5. Making of miniature caityas

© Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010

Figure 6. Insertion of akhe into the miniature caitya

Figure 6. Insertion of akhe into the miniature caitya

© Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010

  • 41 Depending on devotees’ choices and the available moulds, these deities may vary but they are genera (...)
  • 42 According to Dr. Tri Ratna Manandhar, the making of at least one set of nine images every day is co (...)

18When miniature caityas are made for the purpose of being placed as a foundation deposit in a newly built large stupa, the number of clay images should amount to at least one hundred thousand (Skt. lakh) and, if possible, one and a quarter hundred thousand (Skt. savā lākh), thus guaranteeing that the required one hundred thousand caityas will be available. Depending on the guṭhīs and vajrācāryas, devotees undertaking the observance should make at least one set of nine images every day, consisting of five caityas and four images of deities41, and as many caityas as possible42. According to some participants, it is imperative to make at least one series of five caityas. As their numbers increase, the tiny models are placed in layers, one on top of another on the tile to form a pyramid (fig. 7), which is then placed in front of an altar alongside various offerings of flowers, food and burning lamps (fig. 8).

Figure 7. Pyramid of miniature caityas

Figure 7. Pyramid of miniature caityas

© Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010

19The ritual can take place indoors, generally in the presence of a replica of the Svayambhū mahācaitya in the shape of a metal stupa or its depiction on a paubhā. Once the miniature clay caityas are completely dry, they are stacked near the altar or in a corner of the room where a temporary structure is sometimes set up for this purpose (figs 8, 9).

Figure 8. Ritual altar and temporary structure containing the heap of miniature caityas in the background

Figure 8. Ritual altar and temporary structure containing the heap of miniature caityas in the background

© Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010

Figure 9. Mound of miniature caityas

Figure 9. Mound of miniature caityas

© Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010

  • 43 Lewis (1984, p. 360) describes this mound as a “giant three-dimensional maṇḍala”. See also Jinah & (...)
  • 44 To my knowledge, ritual texts do not stipulate the making of this final larger caitya to be placed (...)

20The mouldings end up forming a mound of tiny caityas resembling a “caitya in the shape of [a heap of] grain” (Skt. dhānyākṛticaitya), as described in the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti (Rajapatirana 1974, Part 1, p. 140; Part 3, p. 118)43. At the end of the month of Gũlā, a larger caitya is modelled out of clay and placed on top of the mound (figs 9, 10)44.

Figure 10. A larger caitya modelled out of clay on top of the mound of miniature caityas

Figure 10. A larger caitya modelled out of clay on top of the mound of miniature caityas

© Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010

  • 45 According to Manju Shree Bajracharya (personal communication, August 2019), these are grains associ (...)

21Various offerings that may include nine kinds of grain (unhusked rice, lentils, sesame, etc.)45 and small lamps are laid out on the ground all around it. A fire pit (Skt. kuṇḍa) made of unbaked clay bricks is built by the vajrācārya for the homa ritual, and a large lamp (Skt. mahadīpa) is placed beside it. On the last day, while sitting in front of the fire pit, the vajrācārya begins by performing several rites, especially the offering of the guru-maṇḍala (Skt. gurumaṇḍala-pūjā) and the “flask worship” (Skt. kalaśa-pūjā), assisted by ritual specialists. Then, wearing a specific crown (Skt. mukuṭa) adorned by the Five Transcendental Buddhas (Skt. pañcatathāgata or pañcajina), he performs the ritual of consecration in a condensed form (Skt. samsksipta-pratiṣṭhā). The heap of consecrated images is then covered with a light coating of white lime (Nep. chuna), and fresh flowers – especially a variety of white jasmine (fig. 7) – are scattered on the images. Color scarves and white scarves are also offered. And finally, all participants of the Lakṣacaitya-vrata come to worship the mound of clay images as well as the metal caitya displayed on the altar with offerings of flowers, food, burning lamps, incense and money. The ritual concludes with a large festive meal (Nep. bhoj) served to all participants.

  • 46 See the short video made for the exhibition “Dharma and Punya. Buddhist Ritual Art of Nepal” in 201 (...)
  • 47 There is also a tradition of making small clay caityas in Patan, especially at Chika Bahi (Skt. Sap (...)

22Lastly, all the clay images are either deposited under a large newly built stupa, as a foundation deposit, or taken out to be immersed in the waters along a river at a sacred site (Skt. tīrtha). If the caityas are placed inside a new stupa, an elaborate ritual of consecration has to be performed by the vajrācārya46. Most often, the images are transported to a nearby river accompanied by a musical procession. In Kathmandu, they are generally taken and placed in the Viṣṇumatī River, near the temple of the goddess Indrayāṇī (also called Luti Ajimā), located on the way to the Svayambhū mahācaitya47. After having performed concluding ceremonies and especially a worship (Skt. pūjā) to the serpent-deities (Skt. nāga), all the clay images are immersed in the waters along with various offerings. On the whole, the main stages of caityas-making in the contemporary context are roughly similar to those recommended in the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti or in the Caityapuṅgava.

Paubhās depicting the Lakṣacaitya-vrata (14th-19th centuries)

23The performance of the Lakṣacaitya-vrata has been an occasion for Newar Buddhist devotees to commission a paubhā to commemorate its completion. There is no obligation to commission such paintings, but the ritual has been a common iconographic theme since at least the late 14th century. In recent years, access to digital images of paubhās related to the Lakṣacaitya has made it possible to put together a corpus of some thirty different paintings. Based on this corpus, which provides a relatively representative sample, we observe an evolution of the iconographic programs and the stylistic elements over the centuries. Most of these paubhās also contain inscriptions providing interesting information about the names of the commissioners, their relationship, the occasion to which the painting was dedicated, its date of creation or consecration. They may also record the name of the vajrācārya priest, those of the artists (Skt. citrakār) who made the painting, or the name of the reigning king.

24We can divide this pictorial production into three main chronological phases corresponding to distinct types of compositions. The first comprises paubhās dating from the end of the 14th to the 16th century (figs 11, 12). The second includes a few examples from the 17th century, while the third those made during the 18th and 19th centuries (figs 13-16, 30, 31, 33, 36 and 37). Here I will examine the art historical aspects by providing a synthetic overview of the iconographic programs and stylistic features found on the Lakṣacaitya paubhās belonging to these different periods. I will focus on those belonging to the third group as they display some remarkable characteristics related to the ritual performance and because they have been very little studied so far.

25The fifteen or so paubhās belonging to the first chronological phase (dating from the end of the 14th to the 16th century) often feature a large garlanded central stupa of Nepalese architecture with a pair of eyes painted on the entablature (Skt. harmikā), surrounded by numerous rows of miniature caityas which cover much of the central part of the composition (figs 11, 12).

Figure 11. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1387-88 (N.S. 508), pigments on cotton, 86 × 65 cm, The Walters Art Museum (Inv. no. F.139). Promised gift of John and Berthe Ford

Figure 11. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1387-88 (N.S. 508), pigments on cotton, 86 × 65 cm, The Walters Art Museum (Inv. no. F.139). Promised gift of John and Berthe Ford

© The Walters Art Museum, photograph: Alain Jaramillio

Figure 12. Lakṣacaitya (with Śambūkāvadāna and Saptakumārikāvadāna), dated 1525 (N.S. 645), pigments on cotton, 78 × 63.5 cm, private collection

Figure 12. Lakṣacaitya (with Śambūkāvadāna and Saptakumārikāvadāna), dated 1525 (N.S. 645), pigments on cotton, 78 × 63.5 cm, private collection

© Bonhams, 2018

  • 48 Lakṣacaitya paubhās with the goddess Uṣṇīṣavijayā are housed in various museums. The one illustrate (...)
  • 49 Regarding paubhās featuring Vairocana enshrined in the stupa, an example from the 14th-15th centuri (...)
  • 50 This 16th-century paubhā is housed in the Rubin Museum of Art (Inv. no P1994.15.3). See HAR item no (...)
  • 51 It is difficult to clearly discern the iconography of these four wrathful deities (who are usually (...)

26Usually, within the dome of the largest stupa is the goddess of long life, Uṣṇīṣavijayā (fig. 11), white, with eight arms and three heads, flanked by Avalokiteśvara and Vajrapāṇi48. On four paubhās, Uṣṇīṣavijayā is replaced by the Buddha Vairocana displaying the dharmacakramudrā or teaching gesture (fig. 12)49, while, the goddess Prajñāpāramitā is enshrined within the central stupa in a unique painting50. Several deities are added to the bottom tiers of the large monument or are interspersed among rows of miniature caityas, and occasionally within secondary stupas shown at the four corners. Without listing them all, there are four emanations of the goddess Tārā, four wrathful deities (Skt. krodha)51, the eight directional guardians (Skt. aṣṭadikpāla), and the goddesses Prajñāpāramitā, Vasudhārā and Pratisarā who are regularly depicted in these paintings. Pratisarā may also appear with the popular group of the Five Protection Goddesses (Skt. pañcarakṣā). The sun-god Sūrya and the moon-god Candra may be shown on either side of the central stupa.

  • 52 On a paubhā kept at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Inv. no. M.77.19.4, online, URL: https:// (...)
  • 53 See the painting housed in the Leiden Museum (Inv. no. RV-1943-3, undated, online, URL: http://coll (...)

27On two other paubhās, we find another interesting configuration featuring the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara standing inside an elaborate shrine instead of the large central stupa. The bodhisattva is either depicted in his two-armed red “Padmapāi” form52 or as eight-armed white Amoghapāśa53. The red Padmapāi is flanked on either side by the four emanations of Tārā, while Amoghapāśa is accompanied by his usual acolytes: Tārā, Bhkuī, Sudhanakumāra and Hayagrīva. On both paintings, the background is decorated with a repetitive pattern of small white or multicoloured caityas, as on the previously mentioned paintings (figs 11, 12).

  • 54 For example, the one kept in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, dated 1412 (see note 48), and the on (...)
  • 55 These are seven precious emblems characterising a universal monarch (Skt. cakravartin). They consis (...)

28The paubhās dating from the late 14th to the 16th century are generally divided into three parts. The central one dedicated to the depiction of the Lakṣacaitya theme is framed by an upper and a bottom register. With the exception of a few examples54, the top register almost always shows the Five Transcendental Buddhas flanked by several other buddhas or bodhisattvas. The bottom register, divided into three or five panels, contains various scenes and deities. Starting from the left, the first panel always depicts a vajrācārya priest offering oblations into a sacrificial fire (Skt. homa), sometimes assisted by attendants. Lay patrons may occasionally also be shown behind the vajrācārya, although they are usually depicted in a devout attitude on the right panel. In between these two panels are motifs depicting some of the traditional seven jewels (Skt. saptaratna)55, dancers and musicians or Tantric deities, such as Mahākāla, Acala, Vajrapāṇi, the Pañcarakṣās as well as Śyāmatārā, Vasudhārā, or Avalokiteśvara.

  • 56 For example, the paubhā exhibited at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in Mumbai ( (...)
  • 57 The stories depicted on the side panels of this paubhā were wrongly identified as the Śṛṅgabherī-av (...)
  • 58 A manuscript of the Śambūkāvadāna, dated 1427 (N.S. 547), is housed in Cambridge University Library (...)

29Some paubhās of the 15th and 16th centuries have more complex compositions around the central part with the addition of side compartmentalised registers containing narrative scenes illustrating episodes from the life of the Buddha Śākyamuni, stories from his previous lives (Skt. jātaka)56 as well as edifying tales (Skt. avadāna). Included among the interesting findings concerning the depiction of these edifying tales are the identification of the Śambūkāvadāna and the Saptakumārikāvadāna (fig. 12)57. These two avadānas58 related to the caitya cult are, to my knowledge, rarely depicted on paubhās.

  • 59 Amongst these, we might also add a unique paubhā, from the collection of Sumitra Charat Ram in New (...)
  • 60 The first (incomplete?) one, dated 1653, was formerly in the Jucker collection, see Kreijger 1999, (...)
  • 61 The date 1695 is given in National Museum of Nepal 1998, pp. 44-45, pl. 6 (painting entitled: Ushni (...)

30For the second chronological phase, our corpus includes three paubhās dating back to the 17th century59. Two of them display a relatively similar composition with a large central stupa set off against a background interspersed with rows of miniature caityas60. However, the latter are fewer in number and slightly bigger compared to those shown on earlier paintings. The dome of the main stupa no longer houses a deity but is only decorated with a flower motif, while the lower part shows the Buddha Amitābha in the gesture of meditation (Skt. dhyānamudrā). A new architectural feature is the depiction of brick masonry on which the stupa stands. On either side of this are two monks in an upright position who are depicted on both paubhās, with the addition of an upright vajrācārya priest and a lay devotee making offerings to the stupa on the former Ernst painting. The third paubhā on display at the National Museum in Kathmandu (fig. 13), although dated 169561, has a completely different configuration that is more commonly found on paintings done during the 18th and 19th centuries. It has therefore been included in the next phase of pictorial production and its description is given below.

  • 62 See HAR item no. 90081 (HAR 2023).

31The paubhās belonging to the third chronological phase of the 18th and 19th centuries represent the Lakṣacaitya-vrata in innovative ways, with new types of compositions and artistic styles influenced by contemporary Indian and Tibetan paintings. With the exception of a single painting in our corpus, which still evokes the ritual symbolically through the repetitive pattern of small multicoloured caityas against the background in a kind of revival62; the ten or so paubhās dated to this period feature at least five different types of compositions centred on a large stupa, which is on several paintings the Svayambhū mahācaitya. Indeed, the commonest composition depicts the mahācaitya atop a large pyramidal mound formed by rows of miniature caityas evoking Gopuccha Hill (figs 13-16).

Figure 13. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1695, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 104 × 69 cm, National Museum, Kathmandu (Acc. No. 17.76.180)

Figure 13. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1695, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 104 × 69 cm, National Museum, Kathmandu (Acc. No. 17.76.180)

© National Museum, Subash Krishna Dangol, 2023

  • 63 Cf. Bangdel 2003, p. 116. Slusser suggested 1668 for the erection of these two towers, cf. Slusser (...)
  • 64 Cf. Alsop & Cruanas 2016. I would like to thank Jean-Christophe Kovacs for acquainting me with this (...)
  • 65 This painting has been published several times in the past. See Pal 1975, p. 87; Slusser 2005a, pp. (...)

32The Buddhist monument is flanked by the two towering white shrines (Skt. śikhara) of Pratāpapur and Anantāpur, built in 1654-1655 by King Pratap Malla (1641-1674)63. Around the pyramidal mound of miniature caityas, the artists have created a new layout with the depiction of the Lakṣacaitya ritual in progress. This composition appears in four paintings including the paubhā dated 1695, mentioned above, and in a series of three almost identical ones created in 1807 and 1808. The first was exhibited in 2016, in New York, by Vajra Alsop & Carlos Cruanas (fig. 14)64, the second belongs to the collection of Jean-Christophe Kovacs in Paris (fig. 15), and the third is housed at the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco (fig. 16)65.

Figure 14. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1807, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, dimensions unknown

Figure 14. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1807, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, dimensions unknown

© after Alsop & Cruanas 2016

Figure 15. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1808 (N.S. 929), opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 99 × 64 cm, Jean-Christophe Kovacs Collection, Paris

Figure 15. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1808 (N.S. 929), opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 99 × 64 cm, Jean-Christophe Kovacs Collection, Paris

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

Figure 16. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1808 (N.S. 929), opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 97.2 × 59.4 cm, Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, The Avery Brundage Collection (Inv. no. B61D10+)

Figure 16. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1808 (N.S. 929), opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 97.2 × 59.4 cm, Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, The Avery Brundage Collection (Inv. no. B61D10+)

© Asian Art Museum of San Francisco

33Within the scope of this article, I was able to examine the Kovacs’ paubhā (fig. 15) which contains a three-line inscription just above the bottom part, as well as short ones underneath the portraits of the lay devotees, allowing us to identify them. According to the transcription and translation by Ian Alsop and Kashinath Tamot, the inscription in Newari reveals that:

In the year 929, on the first day of the full moon of the month of Kārtik [corresponding to 22 October 1808], thrice glorious Lakṣacaitya (written “rakṣacaitte”) was performed by the virtuous Śrīkṛṣṇa Tolādhra [Tuladhar], a merchant (New. sāhū) from Ṅata [Naradevī neighborhood, Kathmandu], monastery (?) of Eṃkūla, as well as by the merchants Dhanakṛṣṇa and Bhājukṛṣṇa [his two brothers], Guhyaśvali [for Guhyeśvarī], their elder mother [aunt], their mother Manalakṣmī, their younger sister Candralakṣmīmayi, Cikidhimayi Śrīkṛṣṇa’s wife, Dhakuṃtārāmayi (Dhanakṛṣṇa’s wife), Tejalakṣmimayi (Bhājukṛṣṇa’s wife), the merchant Lakṣmīkṛṣṇa (a son of Bhājukṛṣṇa), the merchant Maṇikṛṣṇa (Śrīkṛṣṇa’s son), the merchant Budhakṛṣṇa (Bhājukṛṣṇa’s third son), and Lakṣmītārāmayi (Śrīkṛṣṇa’s daughter). (Kovacs 2016, p. 24)

  • 66 This part of the inscription has been kindly revised by Alexander von Rospatt.

34The inscription then mentions that: “Thrice glorious Lakṣacaitya were made, in total in numerals 636125, that many having been made, keeping daily observance, giving water offering (Skt. ārgha), making the fivefold offering and performing worship […]”66. It then states that “This thrice glorious paubhā of the Lakṣacaitya (ritual) was painted and completed and then consecrated [on the mentioned] day”. The paubhā was donated by the merchants Jayanarasiṃha and Rājamanānasiṃha and by other participants. According to Kashinath Tamot, Jayanarasiṃha and Rājamanānasiṃha were linked to Śrīkṛṣṇa Tolādhra’s family through the marriage with his younger sister (Kovacs 2016, p. 24). All the characters mentioned in this inscription are depicted in the bottom register of the painting and around the Svayambhū mahācaitya performing the Lakṣacaitya-vrata.

35Before taking a closer look at the depiction of the ritual in progress in the middle part of the composition, I would like to give a general overview of the iconographic program found in the four paintings under consideration. Structured into several horizontal registers, the top section shows either the Five Transcendental Buddhas, as in the Kathmandu National Museum’s paubhā (fig. 13), or two series of five different deities in the three other paintings (figs 14-16). The first series depicts a central triad with the blue Buddha Akṣobhya, directly above the mahācaitya and flanked by Prajñāpāramitā and Ṣaḍakṣarī-lokeśvara, symbolising the Three Jewels in the Newar Buddhist tradition (Huntington & Bangdel 2003, pp. 116, 126). The two other deities with a complex iconography, on either side of this group, are two of the Five Protection Goddesses. On the left, the twelve-armed red goddess Mahāmantrānusāriṇī sitting on a peacock and, on the right, the eight-armed dark blue Mahāsahasrapramardanī sitting on a reclining man. Just below these two we can see, in Kovacs’ painting (figs 15, 17), the eight-armed yellow Mahāmāyūrī (on a horse) and the six-armed green Mahāsītavatī (on a garuḍa). In the San Francisco Asian Art Museum painting and the one of Vajra Alsop & Carlos Cruanas, the last two are shown at the base of the mound of miniature caityas, flanking an unusual red, eight-armed form of Avalokiteśvara which is described below. The fifth Pañcarakṣā goddess, Mahāpratisarā, with a white complexion and eight arms, is always depicted sitting on a lion in the middle of the mound of miniature caityas.

Figure 17. Five Protection Goddesses (Skt. pañcarakṣā), close-up of fig. 15

Figure 17. Five Protection Goddesses (Skt. pañcarakṣā), close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

  • 67 For a detailed description of the iconography of the Pañcarakṣā goddesses, see Mallmann 1986, pp. 2 (...)

36The iconography of each of these five goddesses is mainly based – with some minor variations – on sādhana no. 206 of the Sādhanamālā corpus, which does not, however, mention the presence of a mount (Skt. vāhana) on which the goddesses are sitting67. Their vehicles are, with the exception of the blue Mahāsahasrapramardanī, those traditionally associated with four of the Five Transcendental Buddhas. In the painting in the National Museum in Kathmandu (fig. 13), the Pañcarakṣās are also positioned around the Svayambhū mahācaitya just below the Pañcatathāgatas.

  • 68 For sculptural depictions, see Jinah & Lewis 2019, pp. 79-81, 133-134.

37The iconographic program also comprises different aspects of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, including the two popular white and red forms associated with the Kathmandu Valley, respectively Seto and Rāto Matsyendranāth (Jana Bāhā dyaḥ and Buṅga dyaḥ). On the three early 19th century paubhās (figs 14-16), they are shown according to a Nepalese iconographic convention with a stocky body, clad in a heavy coat and lavishly garlanded (fig. 18)68. Their depiction is completely different in the Kathmandu National Museum’s example (fig. 19) where they are painted in the Tibetan style with the slender classical appearance of “Padmapāṇi”. Flanking the two śikharas, the white and red forms make the gesture of bestowal (Skt. varadamudrā) with their right hand and hold the stem of a pink lotus in their left hand. On Kovacs’ paubhā (fig. 15), Seto and Rāto Matsyendranāth are accompanied by the White and the Green Tārās seated on a lotus.

Figure 18. Seto and Rāto Matsyendranāth, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 18. Seto and Rāto Matsyendranāth, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

Figure 19. White and Red Avalokiteśvara, close-up of fig. 13

Figure 19. White and Red Avalokiteśvara, close-up of fig. 13

© National Museum, Subash Krishna Dangol, 2023

  • 69 Cf. Mallmann 1986, p. 111. However, in the Nepalese context, there are numerous images of Sukhāvatī (...)

38A third form of Avalokiteśvara called Sukhāvatī-lokeśvara – red, four-faced and eight-armed – is shown with his consort at the base of the heap of miniature caityas in the three early 19th century paintings. This aspect of Avalokiteśvara (fig. 20), whose name refers to the paradise of Amitābha, is neither described in the Sādhanamālā nor in the Niṣpannayogāvalī69. To my knowledge, he is only found in the Newar context, with or without his consort. Interestingly, on these paintings, the dome of the Svayambhū mahācaitya features the Buddha Amitābha, considered as the main deity in which Svayambhū is accessed and, at the same time, probably underlining the link with Sukhāvatī.

Figure 20. Sukhāvatī-lokeśvara, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 20. Sukhāvatī-lokeśvara, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

  • 70 This posture is reminiscent of the Bejewelled Buddha Śākyamuni teaching a Kathmandu merchant family (...)

39In the lower register, the patrons and their families, depicted in a gesture of homage (Skt. añjalimudrā), appear to be attending a teaching (Skt. dharma-deśanā) given by a crowned red Buddha (figs 15, 16) and/or a vajrācārya (figs 14, 16), or otherwise they are shown to be worshipping the wealth deity, yellow Jambhala (figs 13, 14). In Kovacs’ paubhā, the Buddha in profile seated in an unusual relaxed posture on a throne with his left leg crossed over his right thigh, is identified as Śākyasiṃha (Kovacs 2016, pp. 4, 6)70. On the far right-hand side, a group of musicians playing various traditional instruments (small cymbals, dhah drum, and long poṃgā trumpets) is also part of the iconographic program. Their depiction underlines the importance of devotional music in the Newars’ religious activities, especially during the holy month of Gũlā.

40Regarding the various scenes surrounding the pyramidal mound of caityas in the central section, the artists have portrayed lay devotees engaged in the ritual of moulding clay caityas in eight main stages represented in the four paintings. On Kovacs’ paubhā (fig. 15), the first two stages are shown in the bottom register, just behind Buddha Śākyasiṃha. A man is extracting dark grey clay from a field (fig. 21) while another man, depicted above him, carries it in a pair of baskets suspended on a shoulder pole (fig. 22). Right above these scenes, the third stage shows a person beating clay with a mallet (fig. 23).

Figure 21. Digging the clay, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 21. Digging the clay, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

Figure 22. Transporting the extracted clay, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 22. Transporting the extracted clay, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

Figure 23. Beating the clay, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 23. Beating the clay, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

41The next stage illustrates the blessing of the clay by the vajrācārya or his assistant who scatters flowers over a lump of clay (fig. 24). The fifth stage depicts the process of moulding miniature clay caityas by lay patrons and members of their family (figs 25, 26). They are shown executing various ritual actions, such as smearing the tapered top of a ball of clay with oil, introducing it into a mould, removing the miniature clay caitya from the mould and placing it besides those already made. In front of each participant are two small containers in the shape of a small cup with a stand and a bowl containing oil and most probably husked rice grains for ritual use. The finished clay caityas are stacked in small heaps.

Figure 24. Blessing the clay, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 24. Blessing the clay, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

Figure 25. Coating the clay with oil and moulding miniature clay caityas, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 25. Coating the clay with oil and moulding miniature clay caityas, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

Figure 26. Introducing the clay into the mould, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 26. Introducing the clay into the mould, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

42The sixth stage features the vajrācārya worshipping a pyramidal mound of miniature caityas crowned by a larger and more elaborate white one (fig. 27). This scene illustrating one of the final stages of the ritual process as described above (figs 9, 10) also features in the painting of Vajra Alsop & Carlos Cruanas (fig. 14, depicted towards the right śikhara), and that of the National Museum in Kathmandu (fig. 13, just above the musicians, on the right-hand side). It is also depicted on the paubhā in the San Francisco Asian Art Museum (fig. 16); however, here the painter has chosen to represent the heap of small caityas topped by the bigger one in a much larger format in the foreground of the composition, just below the actual Svayambhū mahācaitya flanked by the two śikharas. On the other three paintings, this stage in the ritual is in fact shown twice: once among the “narrative” scenes and then again in the centre of the composition, as the main iconographic subject, in place of the Gopuccha Hillock on which the Svayambhū mahācaitya stands itself. In the San Francisco Asian Art Museum’s painting, the artist has created an interesting visual effect as if the miniature model was a projection of the mahācaitya.

Figure 27. Pyramidal mound of miniature caityas crowned by a larger white caitya, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 27. Pyramidal mound of miniature caityas crowned by a larger white caitya, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

  • 71 For more details about the depiction of the homa ritual on paubhās, see Tisseghem 2017.

43The seventh stage shows some participants holding a small conch from which water (Skt. ārgha) mixed with milk and other substances, along with jasmine flowers is offered onto the miniature caityas on either side of the central mound (fig. 28). Finally, the eighth and last stage features an elaborate scene with the vajrācārya priest performing the fire ritual associated with the consecration (fig. 29). Wearing a ritual crown (Skt. mukuṭa), he holds a bell and two long sacrificial golden spoons over the fire altar (Skt. homa kuṇḍa). Various ritual implements (lamps, vases, conch on a tripod) and vessels with offerings are depicted inside the ritual area delimited by banners, the sacrificial hearth topped by a canopy71. The performance of the Fire ritual suggests the completion of the Lakṣacaitya-vrata.

Figure 28. Offering of pure water (Skt. ārgha) mixed with milk and other substances, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 28. Offering of pure water (Skt. ārgha) mixed with milk and other substances, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Jean-Christophe Kovacs, 2016

Figure 29. Vajrācarya priest performing the fire ritual and the consecration, close-up of fig. 15

Figure 29. Vajrācarya priest performing the fire ritual and the consecration, close-up of fig. 15

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010

  • 72 The nāgas, symbols of water and dispensers of rain, are popular local deities in Nepal, particularl (...)

44It is interesting to note that the artists have accurately reproduced almost every step of the ritual in an outdoor setting centred in the heart of the Buddhist geography of the Kathmandu Valley. This sacred topography is reinforced by the depiction of a winding river in the lowermost part of Kovacs’ painting (fig. 15), which most likely represents the Viṣṇumatī River that flows on the east of the mahācaitya and into which the clay caityas may be immersed at the end of the vrata. Furthermore, this visual connection to the local environment appears to be provided by the depiction of several coloured stripes at the base of the pyramidal mound of caityas which recalls the scale-covered bodies of serpent deities nāgas72 whose worship is largely narrated in the Svayambhūpurāṇa. However, this could also represent the nine kinds of grain (Skt. vrīhi) spread around the heap during the ritual process. From an artistic point of view, the inclusion of landscape elements such as a backdrop of hills and snow-capped peaks, trees and animals, and the indication of the sky by stylised and scalloped clouds reflects the influence of Tibetan paintings from the 17th century onward. Similarly, Newar artists also borrowed new motifs and stylistic devices from India, principally from Mughal-Rajput paintings. For example, the way the faces of devotees are drawn in full profile, men portrayed with a thin moustache and wearing a long colourful tunic tied at the waist, like a jama, and a distinctive turban, is inspired by contemporary Indian fashion (figs 25, 26). Women dressed in a tight-fitting choli-type bodice and a long skirt also display some Indian influences, although their jewellery is typically Newar, especially the traditional necklace called tayo, a kind of large biconical gold pendant (fig. 25). They also stand out by their coiffure in the form of a bun. Men’s and women’s costumes also comprise a long dupattā-style shawl.

45Two other paubhās from the beginning of the 19th century feature a second type of composition centred on a large Nepalese stupa atop a pyramidal mound surrounded by the ritual stages of the Lakṣacaitya performance. The first one is housed in the Dallas Museum of Art (fig. 30)73; the other, which was part of the former Ernst collection (fig. 31), was sold at Sotheby’s in 201874.

Figure 30. Lakṣacaitya, c. 1800, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 146 × 89.5 cm, Dallas Museum of Art (Inv. no. 1980.25.FA), Foundation for the Arts Collection, bequest of Lena Mae Caldwell

Figure 30. Lakṣacaitya, c. 1800, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 146 × 89.5 cm, Dallas Museum of Art (Inv. no. 1980.25.FA), Foundation for the Arts Collection, bequest of Lena Mae Caldwell

© Dallas Museum of Art

Figure 31. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1822, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 82 × 58.5 cm, former Ernst collection

Figure 31. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1822, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 82 × 58.5 cm, former Ernst collection

© Sotheby’s, 2018

46Compared to the previous compositions, the two śikhara shrines are missing here and only the white and red forms of Avalokiteśvara-Padmapāṇi are depicted, according to Tibetan aesthetics, on either side of the monument. In these paintings, the “hill” below the stupa seems to be formed by rows of seated Buddhas, either golden Śākyamuni or blue Akṣobhya; however, on closer observation, we can see that miniature clay caityas are also painted behind them (fig. 32).

Figure 32. Miniature clay caityas painted behind rows of seated Buddhas, close-up of fig. 30

Figure 32. Miniature clay caityas painted behind rows of seated Buddhas, close-up of fig. 30

© Dallas Museum of Art

  • 75 They appear to be Vighnāntaka and perhaps Mahākāla.

47The composition is again structured into several horizontal registers with alignments of various deities and historical figures. In the sky, the Five Transcendental Buddhas seated on clouds are surrounded by different aspects of Avalokiteśvara and Mañjuśrī, including Ṣaḍakṣarī-lokeśvara and Nāmasaṅgīti. In the former Ernst paubhā, the artists have also portrayed the deity Vajrasattva above the Pañcatathāgatas surrounded by celestial beings. Without going into detail, the paintings also depict Uṣṇīṣavijayā, Amitāyus and Sitātapatrā, as well as two wrathful deities in dynamic attitudes against a red halo of leaping flames, on either side of the mound75. It is worth noting that in the former Ernst painting (fig. 31), Uṣṇīṣavijayā is shown on the central mound made up of the multitude of blue Akṣobhya and miniature caityas, rather than Mahāpratisarā depicted just below her, among the Pañcarakṣā goddesses, sitting in a line.

48In comparison with earlier paubhās from the 14th to the 16th centuries that often feature Uṣṇīṣavijayā within the dome of the central stupa, those from the 18th to the 19th centuries show instead the Buddha Amitābha or the Buddha Śākyamuni flanked by his two main disciples, as in the Dallas Museum painting. The different stages of the Lakṣacaitya ritual are depicted beneath or around the central mound with devotees busy making miniature clay caityas. In both paintings, almost all the stages are illustrated except for the sixth one featuring the vajrācārya sitting in front of the heap of small caityas crowned by a larger one. In this second type of composition, this stage is shown only once as the focal point with a standard Nepalese stupa crowning the pyramidal mound. In the lowermost register, the artists have represented the patrons and their families worshipping a triad consisting of either a four-faced, eight-armed blue deity with his consort (fig. 30), which appears to be a form of Akṣobhya (Mahā-Akṣobhya?) flanked by two standing bodhisattvas, or a triad consisting of Mañjuśrī flanked by four-armed Gaṇeśa and four-armed Mahākāla (fig. 31).

49Regarding the style of these two paubhās, they reflect a stronger contemporary Tibetan and Sino-Tibetan thangka influence, especially in the depiction of the deities and the cloud formations. The figures floating against cushions of swirling pastel-coloured pink or blue clouds are characteristic of 18th century Sino-Tibetan aesthetics, as well as the large peony buds surrounding the halos of the white and red Padmapāṇi standing upright. Other notable features include the representation in the sky of two Indian adepts (Skt. mahāsiddha) sitting on a tiger skin and two Gelugpa (Tib. Dge lugs pa) hierarchs, one of whom is Tsongkhapa (Tsong kha pa, 1357-1419, fig. 31), which are common subjects in Tibetan paintings. At the same time, Indo-Nepalese stylistic conventions are also discernible, particularly in the way the clothed and bejewelled lay devotees inspired by Mughal-Rajput and Newar traditions are portrayed. Also noteworthy is the representation of small caityas painted along the edges of the Dallas Museum’s paubhā that not only embellish the painting but also recall the clay images made during the ritual.

50A paubhā on display at the Kathmandu National Museum (fig. 33), labelled “Swayambhū” and dated from the 18th century, presents a third type of Lakṣacaitya composition. The painting is very different from what we have seen so far and emphasises the multitude of images that are made.

Figure 33. Lakṣacaitya, 18th century, opaque watercolour on cotton, 108 × 61 cm, National Museum, Kathmandu (Acc. No. S.NO.128)

Figure 33. Lakṣacaitya, 18th century, opaque watercolour on cotton, 108 × 61 cm, National Museum, Kathmandu (Acc. No. S.NO.128)

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2007

51The depiction of the hillock formed by hundreds of tiny clay caityas arranged in more than two hundred and thirty pyramidal heaps occupies almost the whole space so that Svayambhū mahācaitya is nothing more than the summit ornament of this huge structure (fig. 34). Despite the poor state of conservation of this remarkable painting, we can distinguish above the mahācaitya the triad formed by Akṣobhya flanked by Ṣaḍakṣarī-lokeśvara and Prajñāpāramitā, as well as Mahāsiddhas in a mountainous landscape.

Figure 34. Svayambhū mahācaitya on top of the hillock formed by hundreds of tiny clay caityas, close-up of fig. 33

Figure 34. Svayambhū mahācaitya on top of the hillock formed by hundreds of tiny clay caityas, close-up of fig. 33

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2007

  • 76 For a study of the iconographies of the goddess Vāruṇī, see Bühnemann 2017.

52Various goddesses surrounded by red halos, representing different aspects of Vajrayoginī/Vajravārāhī, are depicted above the “hill of tiny caityas”, and in the lower corners. In the centre of this lower register, a many-armed red goddess seated on a skull-cup atop a vase supported by two serpents and evoking the goddess Vāruṇī76, can be seen between Gaṇeśa and Mahākāla. Only three scenes of stages in the production process are illustrated here, from right to left: the beating of the clay, the moulding of the caityas (fig. 35) and the consecration.

Figure 35. From right to left: an aspect of the goddess Vajrayoginī, the beating of the clay and making of tiny clay caityas, close-up of fig. 33

Figure 35. From right to left: an aspect of the goddess Vajrayoginī, the beating of the clay and making of tiny clay caityas, close-up of fig. 33

© Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2007

  • 77 I would like to thank Alexander von Rospatt for pointing out this painting to me and for sharing th (...)

53Another paubhā pertaining to the Lakṣacaitya theme (fig. 36), dated 1846-47, kept at the Ferenc Hopp Museum in Budapest, can be considered as a fourth type of composition77. The focal point is again a large stupa above a mound of stacked miniature caityas flanked here by two monks standing and holding a bowl and a khakkhara staff. Below them, the artist has depicted Jayanarasiṃha and his wife Jagalakṣṃī engaged in moulding clay caityas. The Five Transcendental Buddhas occupy the upper part of the canvas, while in the bottom register the family members of the couple are worshipping a central wrathful deity which appears to be Vighnāntaka. The style of the painting shows a combination of Tibetan and Nepalese aesthetics of the late 18th and 19th centuries. The Tibetan style is visible in the way the blue sky and its gradation from dark blue to a lighter tone have been painted, as well as in the shape of the scalloped pink clouds outlined by blue edges, inspired by contemporary thangkas. At the same time, the architecture of the garlanded stupa with a pair of eyes and the depiction of devotees wearing traditional costumes and jewellery are typically Newar.

Figure 36. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1846-47, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 87 × 55 cm, Ferenc Hopp Museum (Inv. no. 51.107.1)

Figure 36. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1846-47, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 87 × 55 cm, Ferenc Hopp Museum (Inv. no. 51.107.1)

© Ferenc Hopp Museum

54Lastly, the Minneapolis Institute of Art houses a very interesting paubhā that can be considered to belong to a fifth type of composition (fig. 37)78. The Lakṣacaitya ritual is not the principal iconographic theme but appears as a secondary one depicted in the bottom part of the painting (fig. 38). The very dense configuration shows a central representation of the Buddha Śākyamuni seated within an elaborate temple surrounded by a multitude of deities and narrative scenes.

Figure 37. Buddha Śākyamuni, dated 1831 (N.S. 952), opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, Tashilunpo Monastery, 114 × 71 cm, Minneapolis Institute of Art (Inv. no. 91.23.1)

Figure 37. Buddha Śākyamuni, dated 1831 (N.S. 952), opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, Tashilunpo Monastery, 114 × 71 cm, Minneapolis Institute of Art (Inv. no. 91.23.1)

© The John R. Van Derlip Fund and Gift of funds from Ingrid Lenz and Alfred Harrison, and Donna and Cargill MacMillan Jr.

55Among the various deities, we find almost the same ones as those depicted in the Dallas Museum’s paubhā (fig. 30) and on the former Ernst’ one (fig. 31). Floating in the sky are the Pañcatathāgatas, Amitāyus, Prajñāpāramitā, Ṣaḍakṣarī-lokeśvara, Nāmasaṅgīti, Uṣṇīṣavijayā and Aṣṭabhuja-Sitātapatrā, as well as the two Gelugpa hierarchs including Tsongkhapa and the two Mahāsiddhas. The Pañcarakṣā goddesses are lined up on the lower part just above the Lakṣacaitya scenes. Two other forms of Avalokiteśvara, Padmapāṇi and Amoghapāśa are also depicted, as well as the Four Great Heavenly Kings (Skt. caturmahārāja). Around the Buddha, narrative scenes depict monks, lay devotees and bodhisattvas listening to sermons delivered by different Buddhas and monastic teachers, in a mountainous and wooded setting or inside a palace located in different Nepalese cities.

Figure 38. The different stages of the Lakṣacaitya ritual, close-up of fig. 37

Figure 38. The different stages of the Lakṣacaitya ritual, close-up of fig. 37

© The John R. Van Derlip Fund and Gift of funds from Ingrid Lenz and Alfred Harrison, and Donna and Cargill MacMillan Jr.

56In the lowest part (fig. 38), all the stages of the Lakṣacaitya ritual are illustrated, beginning on the right-hand side, with the extraction of the clay and its transport. Then the clay is beaten and ritually blessed to make miniature caityas which are consecrated by a vajrācārya priest. In the midst of this, all the tiny clay caityas are gathered to form a pyramidal mound on which a larger and more elaborate garlanded model is placed. Near the mound of caityas, which is surrounded by small lamps and offerings of grain laid out on the ground, three devotees are performing the ārgha-pūjā by pouring oblations using conch shells. We can therefore see that the Lakṣacaitya-vrata has sometimes been illustrated, albeit with all the ritual stages, as a secondary subject and not always associated with the depiction of Svayambhū mahācaitya. According to the museum’s description, this painting was done at Tashilhunpo (Tib. Bkra shis lhun po) monastery in Central Tibet for a Newar patron during the 18th century (actually Nepal Samvat 952, 1831 AD). It is therefore a paubhā that was executed in a Tibetan context, probably by a Newar painter active there. The style is indeed largely influenced by Tibetan aesthetics with the stylised formations of swirling clouds in the sky and the typical architecture of the central shrine decorated with dragon motifs and a tiered temple roof above the Buddha with large peony flowers. Again, these are combined with Nepalese stylistic elements, as evidenced by the depiction of the cities and palace architectures, the landscape and devotees.

Conclusion

  • 79 See notes 57 and 58.
  • 80 See notes 22 and 57.

57As has been shown, it clearly appears that paubhās depicting the Lakṣacaitya ritual constitute unique visual materials, attesting not only to the antiquity of this Buddhist practice in Nepal but also to its popularity up to the present day among Newars of the Kathmandu Valley. Though the earliest paintings date back to the end of the 14th century, their production seems to have been more consistent during the 15th and 16th centuries, as well as in the 19th century. It would seem that these periods coincide with particular interest in this ritual alongside the development of literary productions belonging to the avadānamālā genre, especially those advocating the cult of caityas. The Sanskrit text on which this Newar practice is based today, the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti, probably dates from the 18th century. As mentioned previously, it constitutes the first part of the Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna and the Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna, which are frequently included in collections entitled Vratāvadānamālā, which circulated widely during the 18th and the 19th centuries. Several other texts, such as the Caityapuṅgava, which appear to be versions of the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti, were most likely also used as manuals for performing the ritual. However, we do not know the texts on which the devotees based their practice in earlier periods. But the prescription of the ritual of moulding clay caityas, without mentioning the aim of making one hundred thousand, had already spread in the Nepalese context since at least the 11th century through manuals such as the Kudṛṣṭinirghātana and the Ādikarmapradīpa under the section sarvakatāḍanavidhi. The paubhās commemorating the Lakṣacaitya-vrata from the late 14th century were made during a period of political stability and economic prosperity under the rule of Jayasthitimalla (1382-1395) and his successors. During these periods, religious activities stimulated artistic and literary creation in the Kathmandu Valley. In this context, some avadānas advocating caitya worship, such as the Śambūkāvadāna and the Saptakumārikāvadāna, of which there exist manuscripts dating back to the 15th century, have been the subject of very interesting narrative illustrations on a Lakṣacaitya painting (fig. 12)79. These two avadānas are, furthermore, included in a text related to the Ahorātra-vrata about the veneration of caitya and the merits derived from it80.

58The Lakṣacaitya paubhās dating back to the 14th-16th centuries depict distinctive visual compositions with numerous rows of miniature caityas surrounding a central Nepalese-designed stupa that houses the goddess Uṣṇīṣavijayā or the Buddha Vairocana (figs 11, 12) and, on a single paubhā, the goddess Prajñāpāramitā. Besides these compositions, two paubhās also feature aspects of Avalokiteśvara standing inside an elaborate shrine instead of the large central stupa. The artists have illustrated the multitude of caityas made during the ritual with a recurring pattern of small caityas covering almost the entire background of the central area of the canvas. It is worth noting that this artistic process is not a Newar creation, however, because it can be seen on several Indian “tsha tsha” equivalents unearthed at Nalanda (fig. 39), dating back to the Pāla-Sena period (8th-12th centuries). Nonetheless, these Indian clay images do not show any connection with a Lakṣacaitya-type ritual in the Indian Buddhist context to my knowledge.

Figure 39. Terracotta plaque, Nalanda, 8th-12th century, unknown dimensions, Nalanda Archaeological Museum

Figure 39. Terracotta plaque, Nalanda, 8th-12th century, unknown dimensions, Nalanda Archaeological Museum

© Photograph: Nicolas Henry, 2017

59Paubhās dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries also show the multitude of caityas made during the ritual but in a new artistic configuration. Compared to earlier pictorial compositions that symbolically depict the completion of the ritual, the aforementioned ones accurately display the making of clay caityas by devotees throughout the various stages of the ritual procedure. These stages are laid out beneath or around a large central stupa atop a pyramidal mound formed by rows of miniature caityas. On several paubhās (figs 13-15), the large central stupa is clearly identifiable to the Svayambhū mahācaitya when flanked by the two white śikhara-style shrines of Pratāpapur and Anantāpur. On these paintings, the artists have skilfully substituted the pyramid-shaped mound formed by the miniature clay caityas made during the vrata for the Gopuccha Hill on which the mahācaitya actually stands. This analogy is further emphasised by the outstanding composition of the second Lakṣacaitya paubhā on display at the National Museum in Kathmandu (fig. 33) showing the hillock formed by hundreds of small heaps of miniature caityas. However, in other paintings, as in the Dallas Museum of Art (fig. 30) and the former Ernst’s (fig. 31), the large central stupa appears more as an archetypal Nepalese stupa with no clear connection to the Svayambhū site. This raises the question of why the Svayambhū mahācaitya is sometimes represented at the top of the pyramidal mound on some paubhās, though the larger stupa modelled out of clay at the end of the ritual stages (figs 9, 10) and placed on top of the mound of miniature caityas, is actually not identified as the mahācaitya.

  • 81 Regarding the Amitābha shrine at Svayambhū mahācaitya, see Lewis 1996, pp. 10-11. See also Rospatt (...)
  • 82 See for example a paubhā from the late 17th century published in Macdonald & Vergati 1979, pl. I, a (...)
  • 83 Although, for practical reasons the shrine of Vairocana was established next to Akobhya’s. See Gut (...)
  • 84 One may wonder whether this association might be related to the presence of the Buddha Amitābha sea (...)

60Among the noteworthy features, Uṣṇīṣavijayā or Vairocana is no longer enshrined in the dome of the central stupa but rather the Buddha Amitābha or the Buddha Śākyamuni. The figure of Amitābha, whose shrine is on the west side of the Svayambhū dome, is no doubt featured here due to his popularity, at least since the 17th century, and to the devotees’ aspiration to be reborn in his Sukhāvatī paradise81. This connection with Sukhāvatī is also emphasised by the frequent depiction of Sukhāvatī-lokeśvara in the paubhās of these periods. The figure of Buddha Śākyamuni in the context of Svayambhū is somewhat less clear, and we may wonder if on some paintings he might actually be the Buddha Akṣobhya because his iconography is very similar to that of Śākyamuni, especially when shown without the two disciples at his side. Furthermore, on several contemporary paubhās representing the Svayambhū mahācaitya with no connection to the celebration of the Lakṣacaitya, the monument is often depicted from its eastern side with the shrine of Akṣobhya82, which is sometimes flanked by those of the other Tathāgatas. The presence of the Five Transcendental Buddhas around the dome refers not only to the Svayambhūpurāṇa, according to which the mahācaitya is the “abode” of the Pañcatathāgatas (Skt. pañcatathāgatāśraya, jinālaya), but also to the Tantric Buddhist conception of a stupa as a mandala, and in particular a vajradhātu-maṇḍala, with its centre and cardinal points dedicated to the Five Transcendental Buddhas, as reflected in the architecture of the Svayambhū mahācaitya83. Thus, while images of Amitābha, Akṣobhya and Vairocana may be justified in the context of the Svayambhū mahācaitya, the one of Uṣṇīṣavijayā is not readily understandable, although she is often depicted seated inside the dome on the paubhās dating from the late 14th to the 16th century84.

  • 85 According to Rospatt, besides Uṣṇīṣavijayā, some paubhās from the 14th and 15th centuries depicting (...)
  • 86 See note 59.
  • 87 The goddess is generally described as sitting within a caitya, cf. Mallmann 1986, p. 390. See also (...)

61This issue had already been raised by Pal in 1977 in an article concerning the Bhīmarathā rite, which has also been the subject of a great number of commemorative paintings. As for the Lakṣacaitya-vrata, the iconographic program of these paubhās is also arranged around a large central stupa inside of which appears Uṣṇīṣavijayā, the goddess of long life and the main deity of the Bhīmarathā celebration85. In these paintings, dating mostly back to the 18th and 19th centuries, the Nepalese stupa is constantly shown atop a lotus rising from a lake. Although this depiction seems to be inspired by the primeval stupa appearing on lake Kālīhrada, described in the Svayambhūpurāṇa, the systematic inclusion of Uṣṇīṣavijayā in the dome has no obvious connection to that text and thus to the Svayambhū mahācaitya. As pointed out by Pal: “generally in the inscriptions [on Bhīmarathā paubhās] the stūpa is referred to as Ushṇīshachaitya and invariably a figure of the goddess Ushṇīshavijayā is portrayed on it” (Pal 1977, p. 186). Furthermore, to my knowledge, the stupa (with Uṣṇīṣavijayā) in these paintings is never flanked by the two white śikharas, reinforcing the uncertainty of its identification with Svayambhū. However, a paubhā commissioned in 1433 relating to the Bhīmarathā ritual and restored (or replaced) in 1666, shows a stupa enclosing Uṣṇīṣavijayā that is clearly identified with that of Svayambhū (Skt. Dharmma-svayambhū)86. This interesting painting commemorates not only a Bhīmarathārohaṇa, but also the donation of a new parasol that is hoisted to the summit of the mahācaitya (Skt. dhvajāvarohaṇa). The simultaneous depiction of these two events probably led the painters to associate Uṣṇīṣavijayā with Svayambhū in this instance. Thus, as Pal points out, the standard description of the goddess, as established in the Sādhanamālā87: “must have led to the superimposition of her image on all painted stūpas, both in the lakshachaitya and bhīmaratha paintings” (Pal 1977, p. 187). This particular paubhā also commemorates the performance of a Lakṣacaitya rite, as indicated by the many small, multi-coloured caityas on the edges and at the top of the painting. A systematic survey and record of the inscriptions found on the Lakṣacaitya paubhās from the 14th to the 16th centuries could shed some light on whether or not the central stupa has been identified as that of Svayambhū. It may also help to establish when the Lakṣacaitya-vrata became part of the cult surrounding Svayambhū mahācaitya.

  • 88 Whether they are related to the Lakṣacaitya or feature the mahācaitya in other ritual contexts, see (...)
  • 89 Two important examples are in Musée Guimet in Paris (Inv. no. P293, dated the early 19th century, b (...)
  • 90 The Newark Museum houses an interesting book cover decorated with a painting of the Svayambhū mahāc (...)
  • 91 For more details, see Ehrhard 1989. See also Gutschow 1997, pp. 88-90.
  • 92 For more details, see Rospatt 2009, p. 51, n. 38.

62The important place assigned to the mahācaitya during the 18th and 19th centuries may well be part of the movement to assert the identity of the Newar Buddhist communities in the context of the construction of a Nepalese state, under the sovereignty of the Gorkha. This dynamic was evident by the revival of interest for the Svayambhūpurāṇa, one of the main versions of which was composed in 1814 (Rospatt 2009, p. 56, 2019, pp. 167-168), and by the multiplication of pictorial and sculptural depictions of the mahācaitya, not only on paubhās88 but also on long painted scrolls (New. bilampau)89, book illustrations and covers90, as well as by the numerous metallic reproductions. At the same time, the interest Tibetan clerics showed in the Buddhist pilgrimage sites of the Kathmandu Valley, especially in Svayambhū and its restoration by Katog Rigdzin Tsewang Norbu (Tib. KaH thog rig ‘dzin tshe dbang nor bu, 1698-1755)91, as well as in the translation into Tibetan of the Svayambhūpurāṇa by Situ Panchen Chokyi Jungne (Tib. Si tu paṇ chen chos kyi ‘byung gnas, 1700-1774)92, may have reinforced this movement.

63This study has allowed us to bring together several Lakṣacaitya paubhās with very similar iconographic and stylistic characteristics and a very close date of production, suggesting that they may have been produced in the same workshop. This is the case, for example, of two early 16th-century paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York93 and in the Art Institute of Chicago94, which present the same composition, although the latter is incomplete. Similarly, the three main paubhās of our corpus (figs 14-16), dated 1807 and 1808, could also have been painted in the same or nearby workshops, perhaps in the Naradevī District (New. Ṅata Ṭole) of Kathmandu. Unfortunately, the inscriptions available to us on two of them do not mention the names of the painters. However, note that Kovacs’ paubhā (fig. 15) and the one in the San Francisco Asian Art Museum (fig. 16) were dedicated at almost the same time, between October and November 1808. Although these three paubhās differ slightly in the quality of their execution and the placement of the deities, there are many iconographic and stylistic similarities (in the depiction of the deities, the patrons and the landscape) that suggest a clear link between them. This connection can be extended to another paubhā depicting the Bhīmarathā ritual, recently auctioned in Taipei95, which shows strong stylistic similarities in the depiction of the patrons (physical features and clothing, including turbans adorned with three identical red and blue pendants), some of the deities, and the landscape. Again, a more thorough and comparative study, including the Bhīmarathā paintings as well as those representing other iconographic subjects according to periods, should provide a better understanding about the rules and conventions used by different workshops or should help to distinguish the hand of a particular artist.

  • 96 This painting was auctioned in 2017 at Bonhams (online, URL: https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/23739 (...)
  • 97 I am grateful to Alexander von Rospatt for bringing this important information to my attention (Ros (...)
  • 98 See for example, paubhās made by Lok Chitrakar (cf. Jinah & Lewis 2019, p. 207, fig. 7) and by Mukt (...)

64This synthetic study of the paubhās relating to the Lakṣacaitya ritual has highlighted the importance of these artworks in tracing the history of the ritual and the diversity of commemorative paintings produced since the 14th century. While the inclusion of the commissioners’ portraits in the compositions is not a new feature in paubhā art, their involvement in the performance of the entire ritual sequences alongside the vajrācārya is a remarkable iconographic innovation that seems to date from the late 17th century. In this regard, it is also interesting to note that the names of commissioners are sometimes found in different paintings. This is the case for Śrīkṛṣṇa, Dhanakṛṣṇa and Bhājukṛṣṇa recorded on Kovacs’ Laksacaitya paubhā (fig. 15) but also on a painting dated 1816-1817 showing the Svayambhū mahācaitya, which has recently emerged on the art market96. It seems that this painting commemorates the contemporaneous renovation of the Svayambhū mahācaitya, in which Śrīkṛṣṇa Tolādhra played a leading role97. Thus, these paintings constitute not only important visual materials but also unique ethnographic records in the documentation of the history of the Lakṣacaitya ritual. This Newar specificity is all the more noteworthy as, in the Tibetan context where the ritual of making tsha tshas is particularly prevalent, there is no equivalent pictorial representations. Today, the Lakṣacaitya ritual is carried out less frequently by Newar Buddhists, partly due to the cost of purchasing clay. It also seems that nowadays, unlike paintings depicting the commemoration of the Bhīmarathā ritual, Lakṣacaitya paubhās are hardly ever produced, except for the contemporary art market98.

Haut de page

Bibliographie

Alsop, V. & C. Cruanas 2016 Laksacaitya paubha, Orientations 47(2), p. 43.

Andolfatto, D. & T. Schrom 2021 The Restoration of Mangal Bahudvara Caitya, Tashi Gomang Stupa, Svayambhu, Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site (Kathmandu, UNESCO Kathmandu Office).

Bangdel, D. 1999 Manifesting the Maṇḍala. A Study of the Core Iconographic Program of Newar Buddhist Monasteries in Nepal. PhD dissertation (Columbus, Ohio State University).

Béguin, G. 1990 Art ésotérique de l’Himâlaya. La donation Lionel Fournier (Paris, R.M.N).

Bendall, C. 1883 Catalogue of the Buddhist Sanskrit Manuscripts in the University Library (Cambridge University Press).

Bühnemann, G. 2017 Churned from the milk ocean, invoked into a skull-cup. The goddess Vāruṇī in Nepal, Berliner Indologische Studien 23, pp. 215-264.

Cowell, E. B. & J. Eggeling 1876 Catalogue of Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts in the possession of the Royal Asiatic Society (Hodgson Collection), The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 8, pp. 1-52.

Darnal, P. 2005 Cābahil sthit dhando caitya jīrṇoddhārbāre kehī carcā [Quelques remarques au sujet de la rénovation du Dhando caitya de Cābahil], Ancient Nepal 159(3), pp. 35-78.

Desai, K. 2002 Jewels on the Crescent. Masterpieces of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya formerly Prince of Wales Museum of Western India (Ahmedabad, Mapin Publishing).

Ehrhard, F. K. 1989 A renovation of Svayambhūnāth-Stūpa in the 18th century and its history, Ancient Nepal 114, pp. 1-8.

Feer, H. L. 1901 Suvarṇavarṇāvadānaṃ et Vratāvadānamālā, in Actes du Douzième Congrès International des orientalistes (Florence, Société Typographique Florentine), pp. 19-30.

Filliozat, J. 1941 Catalogue du fonds sanscrit. Fascicule I – nos 1 à 165, Bibliothèque nationale - Département des manuscrits (Paris, Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient, Adrien Maisonneuve).

Gellner, D. N. 1992 Monk, Householder, and Tantric Priest. Newar Buddhism and its Hierarchy of Ritual (Cambridge University Press).

Gutschow, N. 1997 The Nepalese Caitya. 1500 Years of Buddhist Votive Architecture in the Kathmandu Valley (Stuttgart, Axel Menges).

Handurukande, R. 1970 The story of the shell-maidens, in J. Tilakasiri (ed.), Añjali. O. H. de A. Wijesekera Felicitation Volume (Colombo, s.n.), pp. 46-49.
1976 Apropos K
kin’s daughters, in O. H. de A. Wijesekera (ed.), The Malalasekera Commemoration Volume (Colombo, s.n.), pp. 116-127.
1990 Caitya-worship in Buddhist avadana literature of mahayana Buddhism,
World of Buddhism. The International Buddhist Magazine 6(2), pp. 6-9.
2000
Three Sanskrit Texts on Caitya Worship. In Relation to the Ahorātravrata (Tokyo, The International Institute for Buddhist Studies).

HAR (Himalayan Art Resources Inc.) 2023 Himalayan Art Resources [online, URL: https://www.himalayanart.org/ 3 January 2023].

Huntington, J. C. 2009 History of art 669. Art of Newar Buddhism, Lecture 16 (course support) [online, URL: https://huntingtonarchive.org/resources/lectures/669/16.pdf, accessed 3 January 2023].

Huntington, J. C. & D. Bangdel 2003 The Circle of Bliss. Buddhist Meditational Art (Columbus, Columbus Museum of Art & Serindia Publications).

Jinah, K. & T. Lewis (eds) 2019 Dharma and Puṇya. Buddhist Ritual Art of Nepal (Leiden, Hotei Publishing).

Kramrisch, S. 1964 The Art of Nepal (New York, The Asia Society).

Kreijger, H. E. 1999 Kathmandu Valley Painting. The Jucker Collection (London, Serindia).

Kovacs, J. C. 2016 Paubha du rituel Laksacaitya. Description et analyse, avec traduction des inscriptions par Ian Alsop et Kashinath Tamot, not published.

La Vallée Poussin, L. de 1898 Bouddhisme. Études et matériaux: Ādikarmapradīpa, Bodhicaryāvatāraīkā (London, Luzac & Co).

Lewis, T. 1984 The Tulādhars of Kathmandu. A Study of Buddhist Tradition in a Newar Merchant Community. PhD dissertation (New York, Columbia University).
1989 Mahāyāna
vratas in Newar Buddhism, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 12(1), pp. 109-138.
1993 Contributions to the study of popular Buddhism. The Newar Buddhist festival of Guṃl
ā Dharma, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 16(2), pp. 309-354.
1994 Contributions to the history of Buddhist ritualism. A mahāyāna
avadāna on caitya veneration from the Kathmandu Valley, Journal of Asian History 28(1), pp. 1-39.
1996
Sukhāvatī traditions in Newar Buddhism, South Asia Research 6(1), pp. 1-30.
2000
Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal. Narratives and Rituals of Newar Buddhism (Albany, State University of New York Press).
2019 Understand Newar Buddhism through ritual,
in K. Jinah & T. Lewis (eds), Dharma and Punya. Buddhist Ritual Art of Nepal (Leiden, Hotei Publishing), pp. 25-35.

Lewis, T. & N. M. Bajracharya 2019 Notes on rituals depicted in Newar art, in K. Jinah & T. Lewis (eds), Dharma and Punya. Buddhist Ritual Art of Nepal (Leiden, Hotei Publishing), pp. 48-61.

Lienhard, S. 2009 Svayambhūpurāa. Mythe du Népal suivi du Maicūāvadāna, légende du Prince Maicūā (Suilly-la-Tour, Éditions Findakly).

Linrothe, R. 1998 Xia Renzong and the patronage of Tangut Buddhist art. The stūpa and Ushnīshavijayā cult, Journal of Song-Yuan Studies 28, pp. 91-121.

Locke, J. K. 1987 The upoadha vrata of Amoghapāśa Lokeśvara in Nepal, L’Ethnographie 83(100-101), pp. 59-89.

Macdonald, A. & A. Vergati 1979 Newar Art. Nepalese Art during the Malla Period (New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House).

Mallmann, M. T. de 1986 Introduction à l’iconographie du tāntrisme bouddhique (Paris, Librairie Adrien Maisonneuve).

Matsunami, S. 1965 A Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Tokyo University Library (Tokyo, Suzuki Research Foundation).

Mevissen, G. 1989 Studies in Pañcarakṣā manuscript paintings, Berliner Indologische Studien 4/5, pp. 339-374.

Mitra, R. 1882 Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal (Calcutta, The Asiatic Society of Bengal).

Namgyal-Lama, K. 2013 Les tsha tsha du monde tibétain. Études de la production, de l’iconographie et des styles des moulages et estampages bouddhiques. PhD thesis (Paris, Université de Paris IV – Sorbonne).

National Museum of Nepal 1998 Buddhist Collection of the National Museum of Nepal (Kathmandu, Department of Archaeology).

Pal, P. 1967 Paintings from Nepal in the Prince of Wales Museum, Prince of Wales Museum Bulletin 10, pp. 1-26.
1975
Nepal, Where the Gods are Young (New York, The Asia Society).
1977 The Bhīmaratha rite and Nepali art,
Oriental Art 23(2), pp. 176-189.
1978
The Arts of Nepal, part II, Painting (Leiden/Cologne, Brill).
1985
Art of Nepal. A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection (Berkeley, University of California Press).
1996 Idoles du Népal et du Tibet. Arts de l’Himalaya (Paris Musées, Éditions Findakly).
2001 Desire and Devotion. Art from India, Nepal and Tibet in the John and Berthe Ford Collection (London, Philip Wilson Publishers).
2003a
Asian Art at the Norton Simon Museum, vol. 2, Art from the Himalayas and China (New Haven, Yale University Press).
2003b
Himalayas. An Aesthetic Adventure (Chicago, The Art Institute of Chicago/The University of California Press).

Rajapatirana, T. 1974 Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna: Translated and Edited Together with its Tibetan Translation and the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti. PhD dissertation (Canberra, Australian National University), 3 vols.

Raye, L. 2013 Stories of Success. The Role of Narrative in Nepalese Buddhist Vrata Literature. M. Phil dissertation (Oxford, University of Oxford).

Reynolds, V., Heller, A. & J. Gyatso 1986 Catalogue of the Newark Museum. Tibetan Collection, vol. 3, Sculpture and Painting (New Jersey, The Newark Museum).

Rospatt, A. von 1999 On the conception of the stūpa in Vajrayāna Buddhism. The example of the Svayambhucaitya of Kathmandu, Journal of the Nepal Research Centre 11, pp. 121-47.
2009 The sacred origins of the
Svayambhucaitya and the Nepal Valley. Foreign speculation and local myth, Journal of the Nepal Research Centre 13, pp. 33-89.
2011 The past renovations of the Svayambhūcaitya,
in Tsering Palmo Gellek & Padma Dorje Maitland (eds), Light of the Valley. Renewing the Sacred Art and Traditions of Svayambhu (Casadero, Dharma Publishing), pp. 157-206.
2013 Altering the immutable. Textual evidence in support of an architectural history of the Svayambhū Caitya of Kathmandu,
in F. K. Ehrhard & P. Maurer (eds), Nepalica-Tibetica. Festgabe für Christoph Cüppers, vol. 2 (Andias, Switzerland, International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies), pp. 91-116.
2014 Negotiating the passage beyond a full span of life. Old age rituals among the Newars,
South Asia. Journal of South Asian Studies 37(1), pp. 104-129.
2019 On the monumental scroll of the
Svayambhūpurāṇa now kept in the VMFA Collection, in K. Jinah & T. Lewis (eds), Dharma and Punya. Buddhist Ritual Art of Nepal (Leiden, Hotei Publishing), pp. 166-186.

Shastri, H. (ed.) 1927 Kudṛṣṭinirghātanam. Advayavajrasagraha (Baroda, Gaekwad’s Oriental Series 40), pp. 1-13.

Slusser, M. S. [1985] 2005a On a sixteenth-century pictorial pilgrim’s guide from Nepal, in Art and Culture of Nepal. Selected Papers (Kathmandu, Mandala Publications), pp. 291-350.
[1988] 2005b Bodhgaya and Nepal, in Art and Culture of Nepal. Selected Papers (Kathmandu, Mandala Publications), pp. 595-625.

Tisseghem, A. 2017 Between Artistic Rules and Ritual Realities. Homa in Nepalese Paintings. Bachelor thesis in Religious Studies (Leiden, University of Leiden).

Toffin, G. 1984 Société et religion les Néwar du Népal (Paris, Éditions CNRS).

Tucci, G. [1932] 1988 Stupa. Art, Architectonics and Symbolism (New Delhi, Aditya Prakashan).

Tuladhar-Douglas, W. [2006] 2007 Remaking Buddhism for Medieval Nepal. The Fifteenth-Century Reformation of Newar Buddhism (London/New York, Routledge).

Vaidya, K. 1986 Luchidyo thayegu (making of model chaityas), in Buddhist Traditions and Culture of the Kathmandu Valley (Nepal) (Kathmandu, Shajha Prakashan), pp. 127-131.

Vajracharya, G. V. 2016 Nepalese Seasons. Rain and Rituals (New York, Rubin Museum of Art).

Vergati, A. 1999 Image et rituel. À propos des peintures bouddhiques népalaises, Arts Asiatiques 54, pp. 33-43.

Wallis, G. 2003 Advayavajras instructions on the Ādikarma, Pacific World. Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, Third series 5, pp. 203-230.

Wiener, D. 1974 Thangka Art. January 12-February 23, 1974 (New York, Doris Wiener Gallery).

Haut de page

Notes

1 Cf. Pal 1967, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1985, 1996, 2001, 2003a and 2003b.

2 This ritual is related to the life-cycle rites performed by Newar families, either Hindu or Buddhist, to celebrate a parent with his spouse who has reached the advanced age of 77 years, 7 months and 7 days. This ceremony, called “jyā jaṃko” or “burā/buri jaṃko” in Newari, is the first in a series of rituals aimed at creating auspicious and favourable conditions for the person being celebrated when he or she has reached the “threshold” age (for more details, see Rospatt 2014). The performance of these rites of passage has been the occasion for families to commemorate the ritual by commissioning a specific scroll painting. In the Buddhist context, the painting almost always depicts a large stupa at the centre of the composition, with the goddess Uṣṇīṣavijayā positioned in its dome; while, on the lower section, the main stages of the ritual are illustrated, in accordance with the ritual procedure, in particular the celebrated parent portrayed riding a chariot (Skt. ratha) often with the spouse at his side. In addition to the many Buddhist paubhās commemorating this ritual, there are also metal repoussé plaques commissioned for these occasions, as well as bronze stupas on the front of which is attached the portrait of the performer riding a chariot. For more details, see Pal 1977; Vergati 1999; in particular Rospatt 2014 and Lewis & Bajracharya 2019, pp. 57-60.

3 The terms stupa and caitya are often used as synonyms and refer to both built stupa/caitya and miniature clay moulded stupa/caitya.

4 The month of Gũlā coincides with the bright fortnight of the lunar month of śrāvaṇa (Skt. śrāvaṇśuklapakṣa) and the dark fortnight of the month of bhādra (Skt. bhādrapadakṛṣṇapakṣa) of the official Nepalese calendar (Bikram Samvat). Depending on the year, this month falls between the end of July and the beginning of September.

5 The term vrata (pronounced/spelled “brata/barta” in Nepali) refers to an optional ritual practice often associated with a religious vow dedicated to a chosen deity. It is usually performed on specific occasions or dates, for a duration of one to several days, and may require that devotees fulfil this observance to maintain a state of ritual purity, imposing certain restrictions such as abstaining from certain foods or by temporary fasting. For more details, see Lewis 1989, 2019, pp. 53-54; Raye 2013, pp. 2-9.

6 One of the central religious activities for Buddhist laymen that takes place towards the end of the month of Gũlā is the “five gifts” (Skt. pañcadāna) celebration. On that occasion, the laity make donations of different kinds of grain such as husked and unhusked rice, wheat, soybeans, chickpeas, etc. to Buddhist priests. This may also include fruit, “rice pudding” (Nep. khir), sweets and money (cf. Lewis 1984, pp. 364-365, 1993, pp. 336-339).

7 This is the most important textual authority in Newar Buddhism and recounts the miraculous origins of the Svayambhū mahācaitya that emerged as a self-arisen flame (Skt. svayambhū-jyotirūpa) in the form of five coloured rays of light associated with the Five Transcendental Buddhas or Pañcatathāgatas. The narrative gives a detailed description of the primordial sacred lake and of how it was drained by the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, thereby creating the Kathmandu Valley as a sacred landscape. Although there exist various textual recensions of the Svayambhūpurāṇa dating from different periods, the oldest version seems to date back to the 15th century. For a detailed study of this narrative, see Bangdel 1999, pp. 404-434; Rospatt 2009, pp. 50-77, 2019; Lienhard 2009.

8 For more details concerning the activities carried out during Gũlā (including the Lakṣacaitya ritual), see Lewis 1993, pp. 327-339, 2019, pp. 29-30.

9 For guṭhīs, see Lewis 1984, pp. 166-167; Toffin 1984, pp. 177-180; Gellner 1992, pp. 231-250.

10 Numerous consecration deposits (small metal statues and metal stupas, inscribed bricks, coins, clay mouldings and stampings), dating from various historical periods, were unearthed from the Cābahil stupa (locally called Dhando caitya). The inventory of objects lists several circular terracotta plaques depicting small stupas and the Pratītyasamutpāda-gāthā inscribed in Licchavi script, as well as undated Tibetan-style miniature stupas moulded in the round (Tib. tsha tsha). Nepalese-style miniature clay caityas were also uncovered, although they are not mentioned in Darnal but a few examples are published by Huntington (2009, pp. 42-43). However, we don’t know whether these specimens were produced as part of a Lakṣacaitya ritual. More recently, the 2015 earthquakes also revealed hundreds of Nepali- and Tibetan-style clay miniature stupas and plaques from the damaged Mangal Bahudvara caitya, located in the southwest of the Svayambhū mahācaitya (cf. Andolfatto & Schrom 2021, pp. 78-81), as well as inside the large Bodnāth stupa (Rigzin Hyolmo, personal communication, 2018).

11 This practice is very popular in Tibet where it was introduced around the 8th century and took on elaborate forms with very abundant related literature, as well as very rich iconographies and artistic styles from the 11th century onwards. See Tucci 1988; Namgyal-Lama 2013.

12 According to Tuladhar-Douglas (2007, pp. 47-48), several Garland texts, such as the Mahajjātakamālā, the Bhadrakalpāvadāna and the Sarvajñāmitrāvadānamālā recommend the performance of the Lakṣacaitya-vrata. It should be noted that many texts related to the avadānamālā genre are distinctive Newar compositions or adaptations of earlier Buddhist didactic stories (Skt. avadāna). These later Nepalese Buddhist narratives, which appear to have been composed from the 15th century onwards, are frequently referred to as the “Garland texts”. They are generally written using specific vocabulary and narrative frames and are often associated with the performance of lay vows (Skt. vrata). For more detail, see Handurukande 1990, p. 6; Lewis 2000, pp. 2-7; Tuladhar-Douglas 2007, pp. 41-91; Raye 2013.

13 These collections are not always exhaustive but may regularly contain several works such as the Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna and the Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna. For a short list of texts included in the Vratāvadānamālā, see Tuladhar-Douglas 2007, p. 43.

14 Several manuscripts of this text are kept in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (cf. Mitra 1882, pp. 229-31, nos B, 38 and B, 29. The former is described as a chapter of the Citraviṃśati-avadāna; the latter dated 1727 – N.S. 848 – is included in the Vratāvadānamālā). The Bibliothèque nationale de France also keeps a copy (cf. Filliozat 1941, p. 81, Sanscrit 133, dated c. 1836). Other manuscripts have been digitised by the Nepalese-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project (NGMCP): nos A 918/5, A 921/10, E 1292/14, E 1336/39, and E 1476/4, under the title (Lakṣacaityavrata)Śṛṅgabherīkathā. The catalog of the Āsā Archives (Āsā Saphū Kūthī) in Kathmandu also lists a text entitled Lakṣacaityavrata-Śṛṅgabherīkathā (dp no. 3804).

15 For an English translation of a modern version of the Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna (Buffalo horn-blowing tale), see Lewis 1994, pp. 20-26, 2000, pp. 29-36; Vaidya 1986, pp. 64-68.

16 Henri-Léon Feer (1901) was the first to study this text from a manuscript kept at the Bibliothèque nationale de France (S. dev. 103, later recorded as “Sanscrit 115”, see below). Then, in 1974, Tissa Rajapatirana presented the Sanskrit text and an English translation of the Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna, together with that of the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti, for his doctoral thesis, which has been an extremely valuable contribution to our study (Rajapatirana 1974). Nepalese manuscripts of this text are kept in different institutions worldwide: in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (cf. Mitra 1882, pp. 275-280, included in the Vratāvadānamālā, no. A. 18), in the Cambridge University Library (cf. Bendall 1883, pp. 59-60, Add. 1341, dated 1843 – N.S. 963), in the Bibliothèque nationale de France (Filliozat 1941, pp. 79-80, included in the Vratāvadānamālā, Sanscrit 115, dated c. 1836), and in Tokyo University Library (cf. Matsunami 1965, pp. 136, 243-244, under the title Vratāvadāna-mālā, nos 380-I and 381). The Āsā Archives catalogue also lists a manuscript entitled Vratāvadānamālāyaṃ-suvarṇavarṇāvadāne-caityavratānuśaṃsā (dp no. 3880). In addition, several manuscripts have also been digitised by the NGMCP under the titles Vratāvadānamālā (nos E 1740/13, dated 1909 – N.S. 1030), B 100/15, B 100/21) and Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna (nos B 101/8 and E 3343/4).

17 According to Rajapatirana (1974, Part 1, p. xxx): “with the discovery of S [Sanskrit palm-leaf manuscript] and through its comparison with Ch. and Tb. [Chinese and Tibetan versions], it may now be asserted that the story of Suvarṇavarṇa as preserved in the manuscripts of the Vratāvadānamālā tradition is a later adaptation of what was formerly a work clearly belonging to the avadāna class of literature, for the purpose of glorifying the practice of a particular observance”.

18 The Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna was translated into Tibetan by Dharmaśrībhadra (c. 10th-11th century) and Rinchen Zangpo (Tib. Rin chen bzang po, 958-1055). It is kept in the Tengyur (Tib. Bstan ’gyur), Cat. Derge no. 4144.

19 The discourse delivered by the Buddha Śākyamuni is embedded within successive narrative framings following a standard narrative structure used in the avadāna literature composed in Nepal from the 15th century onward (cf. Tuladhar-Douglas 2007, pp. 45-46). Thus, the speech of the Buddha Śākyamuni recommending the practice of the hundred thousand caityas is narrated by one of his disciples, Mahākāśyapa, to a Rājagṛha merchant named Divākara (who is none other than the father of Suvarṇavarṇa, the main character of the Suvarṇavarṇāvadāna to which the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti is thus related). This double narrative is interwoven with two other outer narrative frames featuring a dialogue between two pseudo-historical Nepalese figures, Jayaśrī (the royal preceptor) and Jinaśrī (the king), on the one hand, and between Upagupta and the Indian king Aśoka, on the other. Each narrative extols the observance of the Hundred Thousand caityas by relying on the authority of the following narrative. Note that Aśoka requests from his master Upagupta the instructions for the observance of the hundred thousand caityas, likewise the story of Śṛṅgabheri (cf. Rajapatirana 1974, Part 3, pp. 107-111). For a brief summary, see also Handurukande 1990.

20 The version of the Lakṣacaityasamutpatti on which Rajapatirana relies contains only abbreviated forms of the formulas, but I give here the complete mantras, with some variations, as mentioned for instance in the Kudṛṣṭinirghātana (Shastri 1927, p. 7) and the Ādikarmapradīpa (La Vallée Poussin 1898, p. 193).

21 This term makes reference to the five different cow products: milk, curd, clarified butter (Nep. ghee), urine and dung.

22 See manuscript no. B, 43 of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (cf. Mitra 1882, pp. 280-282, dated 1784 – N.S. 905) and manuscript no. B 96/12 digitised by the NGMCP. Note here that the Caityapuṅgava is different from the Caityapuṅgala (which is sometimes also called Caityapuṅgara and, more rarely, Caityapuṅgava) despite the similarity between their titles. The Caityapuṅgala seems to be based on texts related to the performance of a rite called the Ahorātra-vrata (rite of day and night), another observance associated with caitya worship. For a detailed study of the texts of the Ahorātra-vrata, see Handurukande 1990, pp. 7-9, 2000. The various versions of this text, the Ahorātravratacaityasevānuśaṃsāvadāna and the Ahorātravratakathā, sometimes included in the Vratāvadānamālā collections, do not describe the ritual of moulding clay caitya but the veneration of the stupa and the merits derived from it. Manuscript versions are preserved at the Bibliothèque nationale de France (cf. Filliozat 1941, p. 20, under the title Caityapuṅgala, Sanscrit 42), at the Royal Asiatic Society (cf. Cowell & Eggeling 1876, pp. 18-19, no. 22, under the title Caityapuṅgara/puṅgava), at the Cambridge University Library (cf. Bendall 1883, p. 86, Add. 1405, under the title Caitya-puṅgala), and at the Asiatic Society of Bengal (cf. Mitra 1882, pp. 221-23, no. B, 24, under the title Saptakumārikā Avadāna, alias Ahorātravratānuśaṃsā).

23 Cf. Filliozat 1941, p. 83, Sanscrit 137 (dated c. 1836).

24 Cf. Filliozat 1941, pp. 82-83, Sanscrit 135 and Sanscrit 136 A (spelled Saccakatāvadāna), also dated c. 1836.

25 Cf. Matsunami 1965, pp. 145, 236, Manuscript no. 407, dated 1708 (N.S. 829).

26 Cf. Cowell & Eggeling 1876, pp. 11-12, Manuscript no. 11, dated 1796 (N.S. 916).

27 We find sarvvakatāanavidhi in the Kudṛṣṭinirghātana (Shastri 1927, pp. 7-8) and sarvakatāḍanavidhi in the Ādikarmapradīpa (La Vallée Poussin 1898, pp. 193-94). This locution has been translated in the Tibetan canonical version of the Kudṛṣṭinirghātana (Tengyur, Cat Derge no. 2229, f. 108r) as “ritual of stamping tsha tshas” (Tib. tsha tsha gdab pa’i cho ga).

28 It is worth noting that the designation sarvvakatāḍanā is also found in the Caityapuṅgava (cf. Mitra 1882, p. 282, no. B, 43).

29 This period was also an important turning point in the spread of this Buddhist practice in Tibet, particularly through paṇḍita Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna Atiśa (982-1054), an assiduous practitioner of this ritual and the author of several texts relating to tsha tshas preserved in the Tibetan canon. We know that he stayed in the Kathmandu Valley for a year before travelling to Tibet.

30 Tuladhar-Douglas also states that “All three of these are listed in Amṛtānanda’s summary of the periodic duties of a vajrācārya, the first two [Upoṣadha-vrata and Vasundharā-vrata] monthly and the last [Lakṣacaitya-vrata] annually” (Tuladhar-Douglas 2007, p. 48, n. 18). Vajrācārya Amṛtānanda (1774-1834) from Lalitpur was Brian H. Hodgson’s informant. Note here that several texts about the Lakṣacaitya ritual that are kept at the Bibliothèque nationale de France and at the Royal Asiatic Society are from among the Hodgson collection.

31 Although this optional ritual is usually performed during Gũlā, it can also be carried out at other periods of the year, especially around October-November, during the month of Kacchalā (Skt. kārtik), which is also dedicated to religious activities. Besides making miniature clay caityas in the context of the Lakṣacaitya ritual, other religious observances, such as Tārā-vrata or Upoadha-vrata, also recommend making this type of image, though not in such large numbers (cf. Lewis 1989, pp. 118-20; Locke 1987, pp. 165-66). It should also be mentioned here that, for certain rituals dedicated to the deceased (Skt. śraddha), layfolk mould clay and sand caityas by the riverside in order to transfer them merits and to help them to achieve a good rebirth (cf. Lewis 2000, pp. 37-38). For the same purpose, the Lakṣacaitya-vrata may also be performed while mourning the death of a family member (cf. Jinah & Lewis 2019, p. 56). Furthermore, according to Dr. Tri Ratna Manandhar and Dr. Naresh Man Bajracharya (personal communication, 11 May 2010 and 2 June 2010), unlike Tibetans, Newars do not traditionally make caityas from the ashes and bones of the deceased.

32 The Newar term dyaḥ (or dyo), equivalent to the Sanskrit term deva, is translated as “god/deity” and refers to divine images and, more broadly, to caitya in our context. Although the ritual consists primarily in making caityas, it is also possible to make images of Buddhist deities.

33 There is no severe restriction on the consumption of meat and alcohol but devotees undertaking the observance must abstain from eating garlic, shallots/onions, tomatoes or eggs.

34 These are grains of paddy rice from which the husk has been removed by hand; the grains must not be broken.

35 In the past, guṭhīs also owned land from which clay could be extracted. Today, the purchase of clay at a relatively high price could be one of the reasons to explain the decline in this ritual performance.

36 When the ritual is performed in a private context, the priest is generally the family priest (Skt. purohita).

37 Although the texts mention the insertion of the five precious substances and the five cow products into the clay, I have only observed the sprinkling of perfumed water during the clay-beating phase.

38 Short documentary films made for the exhibition “Dharma and Punya. Buddhist Ritual Art of Nepal” (Fall 2019, Cantor Art Gallery, College of the Holy Cross curated by Prof. Todd Lewis and Dr. Jinah Kim), show the main stages of the Lakṣacaitya ritual (performed in 2015 and 2016) and the making of 125 000 miniature caityas to be deposited in a new stupa built in Lumbini (online, URL: https://dharmapunya2019.org/portfolio/lak%e1%b9%a3acaitya-vrata/, accessed 20 January 2023). See also Vaidya 1986, pp. 127-31; Lewis 1984, pp. 359-60; Lewis & Bajracharya 2019, pp. 55-56.

39 Ritual texts generally recommend striking the mould at this stage but, in the Newar context, due to the small size of the mould, the clay is simply squeezed into it.

40 According to Dr. Tri Ratna Manandhar (personal communication, 11 May 2010): “We put akhe inside all the clay images, because without akhe, the image does not gain life”. Dr. Naresh Man Bajracharya (personal communication, 2 June 2010) further specifies that “Inserting akhe into the clay mouldings is called garbhathane (inserting life) like nyāsa tayegu in big caityas and images”.

41 Depending on devotees’ choices and the available moulds, these deities may vary but they are generally the Buddha Śākyamuni, Amitābha/Amitāyus, Akṣobhya, Avalokiteśvara, Mañjuśrī or Tārā.

42 According to Dr. Tri Ratna Manandhar, the making of at least one set of nine images every day is compulsory, while the making of one hundred thousand caityas is completely optional. A devotee can miss a day or two then offer two or three sets of images on the day they resume the task.

43 Lewis (1984, p. 360) describes this mound as a “giant three-dimensional maṇḍala”. See also Jinah & Lewis 2019, p. 55, fig. 11.

44 To my knowledge, ritual texts do not stipulate the making of this final larger caitya to be placed on top of the mound but it seems that this stage has become an integral part of the ritual in practice.

45 According to Manju Shree Bajracharya (personal communication, August 2019), these are grains associated with the Nine Planetary deities (Skt. navagraha).

46 See the short video made for the exhibition “Dharma and Punya. Buddhist Ritual Art of Nepal” in 2019 (online, URL: https://dharmapunya2019.org/portfolio/making-a-vajradhatu-caitya-ii/, accessed 20 January 2023).

47 There is also a tradition of making small clay caityas in Patan, especially at Chika Bahi (Skt. Saptapura Mahāvihāra) located in Cyāsal Ṭol, where the ritual of moulding clay caityas is organised annually. At the end, the mouldings are placed in the Bagmati River (Shanta Shree Bajracharya, personal communication, 18 July /2023). See also Vaidya 1986, pp. 128-130.

48 Lakṣacaitya paubhās with the goddess Uṣṇīṣavijayā are housed in various museums. The one illustrated here (fig. 11), from the Walters Art Museum (Inv. no. F.139), dated 1387-88, is one of the earliest. For further details on this painting, see Pal 2001, pp. 214-215. The Musée Guimet in Paris has an example dating from the second half of the 14th century (Inv. no. MA 5165), see HAR item no. 77231 (HAR 2023), cf. Macdonald & Vergati 1979, pp. 131-133; Béguin 1990, pp. 35-37. Two early 15th century paubhās are kept in the Brooklyn Museum, dated c. 1400 (Inv. no. 2010.47) and in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, dated 1412 (Inv. no. 91.469, cf. Jinah & Lewis 2019, pp. 62-63). Three paintings from the first half of the 16th century are housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (dated 1510-1519, Inv. no. 2012.455, cf. Pal 1975, pp. 65, 83, 1978, pp. 71-72, 1996, pp. 82-83), in the Art Institute of Chicago (dated 1513, Inv. no. 2014.1040), and in the Norton Simon Museum (dated 1533 Inv. no. P.1999.04, cf. Pal 1978, p. 71, 2003a, pp. 214-215). Finally, a late 16th-century paubhā is kept at the National Museum in New Delhi (cf. Kramrisch 1964, pp. 111, 150; Pal 1977, p. 184). Regarding the iconography of Uṣṇīṣavijayā and her depiction within the womb of a stupa, see Mallmann 1986, pp. 389-390. See also Linrothe 1998, pp. 99-100.

49 Regarding paubhās featuring Vairocana enshrined in the stupa, an example from the 14th-15th centuries was sold by Christie’s in 2013 (online, URL: https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/Lot/paubha-representant-un-caitya-nepal-xiveme-xveme-siecle-5754094-details.aspx, accessed 3 January 2023). Another one, dated 1443, formerly in the Richard Ernst’s collection (cf. Pal 2003b, pp. 64-65), was auctioned by Sotheby’s in 2018 [online, URL: http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2018/the-richard-magdalena-ernst-collection-n09800/lot.914.html, accessed 3 January 2023]. The one in this article (fig. 12), dated 1525, was auctioned in 2018 by Bonhams [online, URL: https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/24358/lot/3037/, accessed 3 January 2023]. A further paubhā from the 15th century is exhibited at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in Mumbai (Inv. no. 53.25), see HAR item no. 19465 (HAR 2023); Pal 1967, pp. 6-8; Desai 2002, pp. 218-219. On these paintings, Vairocana may be flanked by Avalokiteśvara and either Vajrapāṇi or Maitreya.

50 This 16th-century paubhā is housed in the Rubin Museum of Art (Inv. no P1994.15.3). See HAR item no. 100004 (HAR 2023); Vajracharya 2016, pp. 85-87.

51 It is difficult to clearly discern the iconography of these four wrathful deities (who are usually included in the Ten Krodhas series), but Uṣṇīṣavijayā is usually surrounded at the four cardinal points by Acala, Ṭakkirāja, Nīladaṇḍa and Mahābala (cf. Mallmann 1986, p. 390). However, according to Manju Shree Ratna Bajracharya, these may also be Acala, Yamāntaka, Vighnāntaka and Prajñāntaka (personal communication, August 2019).

52 On a paubhā kept at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Inv. no. M.77.19.4, online, URL: https://collections.lacma.org/node/238794, accessed 3 January 2023), dated 1375-1400. See Pal 1978, pp. 70-71, 1985, pp. 203-204.

53 See the painting housed in the Leiden Museum (Inv. no. RV-1943-3, undated, online, URL: http://collectie.wereldculturen.nl/Default.aspx?ccid=726146&lang=#/query/fe7d1303-9d76-435d-ad93-bbc16b9dd331, accessed 3 January 2023).

54 For example, the one kept in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, dated 1412 (see note 48), and the one exhibited in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in Mumbai (see note 49). On these paubhās, the Five Transcendental Buddhas are depicted in the central part inside secondary stupas.

55 These are seven precious emblems characterising a universal monarch (Skt. cakravartin). They consist of a wheel, of a wish-granting jewel, of an elephant, of a horse, of a queen, of a minister, and of a general. For depictions of these auspicious symbols of Buddhism on paubhas, see Pal 1978, pp. 67, 69.

56 For example, the paubhā exhibited at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in Mumbai (see note 49) depicts episodes from the life of the Buddha Śākyamuni as well as several jātakas, including the Maccha-jātaka, the Mahākapi-jātaka or the Hasti-jātaka.

57 The stories depicted on the side panels of this paubhā were wrongly identified as the Śṛṅgabherī-avadāna, see HAR item no. 30550 (HAR 2023), see also notice on Bonhams (online, URL: https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/24358/lot/3037/, accessed 3 January 2023). Among the notable narrative scenes from the Śambūkāvadāna, two vignettes in the upper right-hand part show a caitya surrounded by seven shells in a pond, and then how a fisherman catches them. The latter takes the shells to his wife who boils and eats them. Later, she gives birth to seven daughters who are the reincarnations of the seven shells. The group of seven young women is represented several times. Just below the central part of the painting, the group is depicted twice on the bank of a stream, probably releasing some fish back into the water (?), and worshipping a sand caitya before being beaten by their stick-wielding father. One of the last episodes (in the lower register just behind the consecration scene) shows the seven young women with a Pratyekabuddha who predicts their rebirth into a royal family in Benares. In the left register, the vignettes appear to illustrate the story of the Saptakumārikāvadāna, the rebirth of the fisherman’s daughters as princesses in the royal family of King Kṛkin. The upper part of the last scene seems to depict the final attainment of the seven maidens as Pratyekabuddha. The Śambūkāvadāna and the Saptakumārikāvadāna also appear at the end of some versions of the Ahorātravrata. For more details about these two avadānas, see Handurukande 1970, 1976, 2000.

58 A manuscript of the Śambūkāvadāna, dated 1427 (N.S. 547), is housed in Cambridge University Library (MS Add. 1580), cf. Bendall 1883, pp. 128-129, (online, URL: https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-01580/1, accessed 20 December 2022). An example of the Saptakumārikāvadāna, dated 1487 (N.S. 608), has been digitised by the NGMCP (no. A 39/6, online, URL: http://catalogue-old.ngmcp.uni-hamburg.de/mediawiki/index.php/A_39-6_Saptakum%C4%81rik%C4%81vad%C4%81na, accessed 20 December 2022). See also Bendall 1883, pp. 110-14 (MS Add. 1482, included in the Aśokāvadānamālā, text 11).

59 Amongst these, we might also add a unique paubhā, from the collection of Sumitra Charat Ram in New Delhi, made in 1433 and restored in 1666. This painting not only commemorates the celebration of the Bhīmarathārohaṇa and the replacement of the large summit parasol of Svayambhū mahācaitya but also the execution of the Lakṣacaitya-vrata. However, compared to the other paintings, the rows of multicoloured miniature caityas are only depicted on the edges of this painting as a secondary iconographic theme. For a detailed description of this interesting paubhā, see Pal 1977, pp. 177-183, fig. 6; Kramrish 1964; Vergati 1994.

60 The first (incomplete?) one, dated 1653, was formerly in the Jucker collection, see Kreijger 1999, pp. 54-55, see also HAR item no. 77139 (HAR 2023). It was sold at Sotheby’s in 2006 (online, URL: https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2006/the-jucker-collection-of-himalayan-paintings-n08169/lot.10.html, accessed 3 January 2023). The second painting, dated 1644, from the Richard R. Ernst collection, see HAR item no. 18336 (HAR 2023), was auctioned at Sotheby’s in 2018 (online, URL: https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2018/the-richard-magdalena-ernst-collection-n09800/lot.905.html, accessed 3 January 2023).

61 The date 1695 is given in National Museum of Nepal 1998, pp. 44-45, pl. 6 (painting entitled: Ushnishavijaya). The museum’s label simply states: “Jyotisvarupa Svayambhu caitya, Acc. No. 17.76.180”, with no indication of a date. This paubhā has recently been published in Andolfatto & Schrom 2021 (p. 80) with a partial reading of the inscription stating that it “was commissioned by a certain Thākurasiṃha Tulādhara and his family during the restoration of the Svayaṃbhucaitya in 1694 CE (NS 815)”.

62 See HAR item no. 90081 (HAR 2023).

63 Cf. Bangdel 2003, p. 116. Slusser suggested 1668 for the erection of these two towers, cf. Slusser 2005a, p. 313. These two temples were unfortunately very badly damaged, especially Pratāpapur, during the earthquake on 25 April 2015, and have now been completely restored.

64 Cf. Alsop & Cruanas 2016. I would like to thank Jean-Christophe Kovacs for acquainting me with this reference.

65 This painting has been published several times in the past. See Pal 1975, p. 87; Slusser 2005a, pp. 317-319, fig. 26; Huntington & Bangdel 2003, pp. 116-118; and most recently in Jinah & Lewis 2019, pp. 196-197.

66 This part of the inscription has been kindly revised by Alexander von Rospatt.

67 For a detailed description of the iconography of the Pañcarakṣā goddesses, see Mallmann 1986, pp. 289-295; Mevissen 1989, pp. 343-344, 359-360.

68 For sculptural depictions, see Jinah & Lewis 2019, pp. 79-81, 133-134.

69 Cf. Mallmann 1986, p. 111. However, in the Nepalese context, there are numerous images of Sukhāvatī-lokeśvara in different aspects. The four-faced, eight-armed one, depicted with his consort, seems to have been popular in the 18th and 19th centuries, as he is found not only on the paubhās of the Lakṣacaitya but also on those of the Bhīmarathā and, more broadly, as the main deity on paintings and sculptures of this period. The bodhisattva is seated in the position of royal ease (Skt. lalitāsana) on a lotus. His two main hands are in the teaching gesture (Skt. dharmacakramudrā) while the six others, from the lower right hand, form the gesture of giving and, then successively hold an arrow, a rosary, a book, a bow, and a lotus bud. The position of the attributes (and sometimes the attributes themselves) may vary slightly. One sculpture of Sukhāvatī-lokeśvara, dated 1818, housed in the Newark Museum, is clearly identified with an inscription, cf. Reynolds et al. 1986, pp. 121-122, S45. Nevertheless, a one-faced, six-armed form, with no consort, that also appears to be Sukhāvatī-lokeśvara, has already been depicted at least since the 13th century, see for example an illustration on a palm leaf of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā-Prajñāpāramitā manuscript (MS Add. 1465) kept at the Cambridge University Library (online, URL: https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-01465/520, accessed 3 January 2023). See also the deity on a 14th century paubhā offered for sale in 2018 at Christie’s, Paris (online, URL: https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-6185328, accessed 3 January 2023). For more details, see Lewis 1996, pp. 11-12.

70 This posture is reminiscent of the Bejewelled Buddha Śākyamuni teaching a Kathmandu merchant family in a paubhā kept in the Cleveland Museum (Inv. no. 1973.69, dated 1648). See Huntington & Bangdel 2003, pp. 146-149.

71 For more details about the depiction of the homa ritual on paubhās, see Tisseghem 2017.

72 The nāgas, symbols of water and dispensers of rain, are popular local deities in Nepal, particularly in the Kathmandu Valley where, according to the Svayambhūpurāṇa, they originally inhabited the primordial lake of Kālīhrada, also known as the “abode of snakes” (Skt. nāgavāsa). Their figuration under Svayambhū mahācaitya undoubtedly evokes their importance in the history of the site, but also in the context of the Lakṣacaitya ritual, as the clay caityas are intended to be immersed in a river. This depiction of several coloured stripes recalling the scale-covered bodies of nāgas is found on all surveyed 18th and 19th century pāubhas.

73 Dallas Museum of Art, Inv. no. 1980.25.FA (online, URL: https://dma.org/art/collection/object/4247037, accessed 20 January 2023; see also Wiener 1974, Pl. D).

74 Online catalogue (online, URL: https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2018/the-richard-magdalena-ernst-collection-n09800/lot.902.html, accessed 4 January 2023). See also HAR item no. 18368 (HAR 2023).

75 They appear to be Vighnāntaka and perhaps Mahākāla.

76 For a study of the iconographies of the goddess Vāruṇī, see Bühnemann 2017.

77 I would like to thank Alexander von Rospatt for pointing out this painting to me and for sharing the translation of the inscriptions. My thanks also go to Kelényi Béla for providing me with information about this painting.

78 For details, see, Minneapolis Institute of Art, Inv. no. 91.23.1 (online, URL: https://collections.artsmia.org/art/4227/shakyamuni-buddha-the-enlightened-one-tashilumpo-monastery, accessed 20 January 2023).

79 See notes 57 and 58.

80 See notes 22 and 57.

81 Regarding the Amitābha shrine at Svayambhū mahācaitya, see Lewis 1996, pp. 10-11. See also Rospatt 2013, pp. 102, 114, pl. 10.

82 See for example a paubhā from the late 17th century published in Macdonald & Vergati 1979, pl. I, and another one housed at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Inv. no. 21.1659, dated 1718 (online, URL: http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/stupa-and-deities-in-niches-16290, accessed 3 January 2023).

83 Although, for practical reasons the shrine of Vairocana was established next to Akobhya’s. See Gutschow 1997, pp. 89, 94-95. See also Rospatt 2013, pp. 100-102, pl. 3 and 8. Mention should be made here that the Svayambhū mahācaitya can also be considered as a Dharmadhātuvāgīśvara caitya whose central deity is then Mañjughoṣa/Mañjuśrī (for more detail, see Rospatt 1999). However, none of the Lakṣacaitya paubhās surveyed show the image of Mañjuśrī within the dome.

84 One may wonder whether this association might be related to the presence of the Buddha Amitābha seated on a lotus held in one of her right hands (cf. Mallmann 1986, pp. 389-390).

85 According to Rospatt, besides Uṣṇīṣavijayā, some paubhās from the 14th and 15th centuries depicting mandalas with either the moon god or the sun god at their centre surrounded by the Nine Planetary deities (Skt. navagraha) might have been painted in the context of the Bhīmarathā ritual (Rospatt 2014, pp. 112, 114).

86 See note 59.

87 The goddess is generally described as sitting within a caitya, cf. Mallmann 1986, p. 390. See also Linrothe 1998, pp. 99-100.

88 Whether they are related to the Lakṣacaitya or feature the mahācaitya in other ritual contexts, see note 96 for an example.

89 Two important examples are in Musée Guimet in Paris (Inv. no. P293, dated the early 19th century, brought by Brian H. Hodgson, cf. Lienhard 2009) and in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (Inv. no. 91.466, dated 1876, cf. Rospatt 2019, pp. 166-86; Jinah & Lewis 2019, pp. 188-89).

90 The Newark Museum houses an interesting book cover decorated with a painting of the Svayambhū mahācaitya atop the Gopuccha Hill, flanked by the two white śikharas of Pratāpapur and Anantāpur. Below the mahācaitya is depicted the primordial lake (Inv. no. 2003.61.7, dated the 17th-18th centuries, online, URL: https://www.facebook.com/manuscriptsofnepal/photos/2604984836469315/, accessed 3 January 2023).

91 For more details, see Ehrhard 1989. See also Gutschow 1997, pp. 88-90.

92 For more details, see Rospatt 2009, p. 51, n. 38.

93 Inv. no. 2012.455 (online, URL: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/78188, accessed 3 January 2023); for more details, Pal 1975, pp. 65, 83, 1978, pp. 71-72, 1996, pp. 82-83.

94 Inv. no. 2014.1040 (online, URL: https://www.artic.edu/artworks/131816/painted-banner-paubha-of-goddess-ushnishavijaya-within-a-funerary-mound-chaitya-and-surrounded-by-chaityas, accessed 3 January 2023).

95 This paubhā from an American private collection was put on sale by the Ethereal Gallery in October 2019 in Taipei (online, URL: https://www.epailive.com/goods/12849111, accessed 3 January 2023).

96 This painting was auctioned in 2017 at Bonhams (online, URL: https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/23739/lot/3051, accessed 3 January 2023). See also HAR item no. 2227 (HAR 2023). For a reading of the inscription on this paubhā, see Facebook post by Lost Arts of Nepal (online, URL: https://m.facebook.com/lostartsofnepal/photos/a.1519805961673204/2263314400655686/?type=3&source=48&__tn__=EHH-R, accessed 3 January 2023). This paubhā was again recently auctioned (October 2023) in London at Frieze Masters, see Facebook post by My Living Heritage (online, URL: https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=699216032243032&set=pb.100064639241910.-2207520000&type=3, accessed October 2023).

97 I am grateful to Alexander von Rospatt for bringing this important information to my attention (Rospatt 2011, p. 199).

98 See for example, paubhās made by Lok Chitrakar (cf. Jinah & Lewis 2019, p. 207, fig. 7) and by Mukti Singh Thapa (online, URL: https://www.mona.com.np/art/v/lakshya-chaitya, accessed April 2024).

Haut de page

Table des illustrations

Titre Figure 1. Digging up clay from the riverbanks
Crédits © Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-1.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 109k
Titre Figure 2. Small metal moulds in the shape of tiny caityas
Crédits © Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, Bhaktapur, 2019
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-2.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 262k
Titre Figure 3. Beating of the clay
Crédits © Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-3.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 186k
Titre Figure 4. Purification and blessing of the clay
Crédits © Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-4.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 327k
Titre Figure 5. Making of miniature caityas
Crédits © Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-5.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 83k
Titre Figure 6. Insertion of akhe into the miniature caitya
Crédits © Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-6.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 169k
Titre Figure 7. Pyramid of miniature caityas
Crédits © Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-7.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 169k
Titre Figure 8. Ritual altar and temporary structure containing the heap of miniature caityas in the background
Crédits © Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-8.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 178k
Titre Figure 9. Mound of miniature caityas
Crédits © Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-9.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 135k
Titre Figure 10. A larger caitya modelled out of clay on top of the mound of miniature caityas
Crédits © Shanta Shree Ratna Bajracharya, Kathmandu, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-10.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 272k
Titre Figure 11. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1387-88 (N.S. 508), pigments on cotton, 86 × 65 cm, The Walters Art Museum (Inv. no. F.139). Promised gift of John and Berthe Ford
Crédits © The Walters Art Museum, photograph: Alain Jaramillio
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-11.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 515k
Titre Figure 12. Lakṣacaitya (with Śambūkāvadāna and Saptakumārikāvadāna), dated 1525 (N.S. 645), pigments on cotton, 78 × 63.5 cm, private collection
Crédits © Bonhams, 2018
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-12.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 874k
Titre Figure 13. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1695, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 104 × 69 cm, National Museum, Kathmandu (Acc. No. 17.76.180)
Crédits © National Museum, Subash Krishna Dangol, 2023
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-13.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 342k
Titre Figure 14. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1807, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, dimensions unknown
Crédits © after Alsop & Cruanas 2016
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-14.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 527k
Titre Figure 15. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1808 (N.S. 929), opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 99 × 64 cm, Jean-Christophe Kovacs Collection, Paris
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-15.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 759k
Titre Figure 16. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1808 (N.S. 929), opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 97.2 × 59.4 cm, Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, The Avery Brundage Collection (Inv. no. B61D10+)
Crédits © Asian Art Museum of San Francisco
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-16.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 903k
Titre Figure 17. Five Protection Goddesses (Skt. pañcarakṣā), close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-17.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 679k
Titre Figure 18. Seto and Rāto Matsyendranāth, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-18.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 239k
Titre Figure 19. White and Red Avalokiteśvara, close-up of fig. 13
Crédits © National Museum, Subash Krishna Dangol, 2023
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-19.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 288k
Titre Figure 20. Sukhāvatī-lokeśvara, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-20.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 133k
Titre Figure 21. Digging the clay, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-21.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 147k
Titre Figure 22. Transporting the extracted clay, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-22.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 174k
Titre Figure 23. Beating the clay, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-23.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 142k
Titre Figure 24. Blessing the clay, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-24.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 186k
Titre Figure 25. Coating the clay with oil and moulding miniature clay caityas, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-25.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 218k
Titre Figure 26. Introducing the clay into the mould, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-26.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 256k
Titre Figure 27. Pyramidal mound of miniature caityas crowned by a larger white caitya, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-27.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 202k
Titre Figure 28. Offering of pure water (Skt. ārgha) mixed with milk and other substances, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Jean-Christophe Kovacs, 2016
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-28.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 310k
Titre Figure 29. Vajrācarya priest performing the fire ritual and the consecration, close-up of fig. 15
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2010
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-29.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 241k
Titre Figure 30. Lakṣacaitya, c. 1800, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 146 × 89.5 cm, Dallas Museum of Art (Inv. no. 1980.25.FA), Foundation for the Arts Collection, bequest of Lena Mae Caldwell
Crédits © Dallas Museum of Art
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-30.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 623k
Titre Figure 31. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1822, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 82 × 58.5 cm, former Ernst collection
Crédits © Sotheby’s, 2018
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-31.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 233k
Titre Figure 32. Miniature clay caityas painted behind rows of seated Buddhas, close-up of fig. 30
Crédits © Dallas Museum of Art
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-32.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 162k
Titre Figure 33. Lakṣacaitya, 18th century, opaque watercolour on cotton, 108 × 61 cm, National Museum, Kathmandu (Acc. No. S.NO.128)
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2007
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-33.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 332k
Titre Figure 34. Svayambhū mahācaitya on top of the hillock formed by hundreds of tiny clay caityas, close-up of fig. 33
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2007
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-34.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 397k
Titre Figure 35. From right to left: an aspect of the goddess Vajrayoginī, the beating of the clay and making of tiny clay caityas, close-up of fig. 33
Crédits © Photograph: Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, 2007
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-35.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 330k
Titre Figure 36. Lakṣacaitya, dated 1846-47, opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, 87 × 55 cm, Ferenc Hopp Museum (Inv. no. 51.107.1)
Crédits © Ferenc Hopp Museum
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-36.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 258k
Titre Figure 37. Buddha Śākyamuni, dated 1831 (N.S. 952), opaque watercolour and gold on cotton, Tashilunpo Monastery, 114 × 71 cm, Minneapolis Institute of Art (Inv. no. 91.23.1)
Crédits © The John R. Van Derlip Fund and Gift of funds from Ingrid Lenz and Alfred Harrison, and Donna and Cargill MacMillan Jr.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-37.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 865k
Titre Figure 38. The different stages of the Lakṣacaitya ritual, close-up of fig. 37
Crédits © The John R. Van Derlip Fund and Gift of funds from Ingrid Lenz and Alfred Harrison, and Donna and Cargill MacMillan Jr.
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-38.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 217k
Titre Figure 39. Terracotta plaque, Nalanda, 8th-12th century, unknown dimensions, Nalanda Archaeological Museum
Crédits © Photograph: Nicolas Henry, 2017
URL http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/docannexe/image/6487/img-39.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 141k
Haut de page

Pour citer cet article

Référence électronique

Kunsang Namgyal-Lama, « Lakṣacaitya paubhās. Pictorial representations of a Newar Buddhist ritual performance »Études mongoles et sibériennes, centrasiatiques et tibétaines [En ligne], 55 | 2024, mis en ligne le 19 août 2024, consulté le 03 décembre 2024. URL : http://0-journals-openedition-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/emscat/6487 ; DOI : https://0-doi-org.catalogue.libraries.london.ac.uk/10.4000/126lu

Haut de page

Auteur

Kunsang Namgyal-Lama

Kunsang Namgyal-Lama is an art historian on Tibetan and Nepalese art. She has particularly studied tsha tshas of the Tibetan world (Ph.D, Paris-Sorbonne University – Paris IV). She is a lecturer in Nepalese and Tibetan art history at the Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales, Paris, and associate researcher in the CESAH (Centre d’Études Sud-Asiatiques et Himalayennes, CNRS/EHESS). Her publications include “Mass production of images as a ritual practice. Molded clay image (tsatsa) of Amoghapasha”, in Himalayan Art in 108 Objects (Rubin Museum of Art, 2023), “Du sacré produit en masse. Les tsha tsha du monde tibétain” (Revue Histoire de l’art, 2013), “Tsha tsha inscriptions. A preliminary survey”, in Tibetan Inscriptions (edited by Kurt Tropper & Cristina Scherrer-Schaub, Brill, 2013).
kunnlama@gmail.com

Haut de page

Droits d’auteur

Le texte et les autres éléments (illustrations, fichiers annexes importés), sont « Tous droits réservés », sauf mention contraire.

Haut de page
Rechercher dans OpenEdition Search

Vous allez être redirigé vers OpenEdition Search