Introduction

1In his essay ‘The Structure of Scientific Revolutions’, Kuhn (1969) stressed the fact that scientific paradigms pass from one to another through a revolution. Comparable to the discovery of writing and the invention of printing, digital technology in general and educational technologies, in particular, represent an unprecedented upheaval in terms of epistemology, culture, and identity in today’s world. Historically speaking, these revolutions had a major impact on education. The current educational situation is no exception and raises incessant questions about the added value of the digital ecosystem for teaching and learning practices in a university context. When the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) was officially declared a Public Health Emergency, educational ministries and institutions unanimously opted for distance education as an alternative solution to carry on teaching and learning worldwide. This decision resulted in a range of technical, pedagogical, and ethical issues related to access and equal opportunities. Yet, it was an opportunity to implement innovative practices that integrated various technological solutions. Integrating Blended Learning into the educational arena was a significant undertaking that demanded serious consideration and reflection. While this current situation has destabilised educational systems it has urged educationists to use digital devices and adopt blended learning mode of instruction. Flexible hybrid courses (HyFlex) are one of the innovative teaching devices that have emerged since the health crisis and aimed to achieve educational continuity. Since the start of the 2020–2021 academic year, several universities have seen in the hybrid model a means that can reduce the time of physical contact on the university campus and increase equity in access and participation in learning (Lebrun et al., 2014). As demonstrated in the past, the HyFlex model for flexible hybrid learning accommodates both students who wish or can be on campus and those who prefer to study remotely or online due to health concerns or geographical distance when the university campus is closed (Beatty, 2012; He et al., 2015).

2In this research, we seek to identify the factors favouring the acceptance of this new practice by students at Mohammed First University. Based on a research model inspired by various extensions of the technology acceptance model (TAM), we conducted an empirical study with 249 students from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy at Mohammed First University who experienced learning in a HyFlex environment during the 2020–2021 fall semester. Our objective was to analyse the influence of perceptions of usefulness and ease of use of the HyFlex model and the facilitating conditions and individual characteristics, chiefly the availability of technological resources and the mastery of the computational tool on the behavioural intention of adopting this approach. HyFlex was a new and, up until recently, rarely implemented mode of teaching and learning, and little research has explored students’ perceptions of it as a viable alternative to face the state of emergency during COVID-19. This study makes an original contribution to the literature research gap on HyFlex design as it assesses higher education learners’ perceptions of the qualitative learning experiences HyFlex courses may offer.

3The present study is exploratory and addresses students’ attitudes and perceptions regarding the implementation of the HyFlex mode. With the likely adoption of HyFlex and other alternative instructional approaches in higher education in response to COVID-19, understanding students’ perspectives can help teachers prepare for HyFlex and optimise various technological tools and pedagogical approaches to meet students’ needs. The use of the structural equation method allowed us to test the relationships between our research variables and thus validate our hypotheses. In terms of results, the study sets out perceived advantages and limitations as well as proposals for improvement for the post-pandemic phase. In this sense, the results show that attitude, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and availability of technological resources are the main factors favouring the acceptance of e-learning by the surveyed students.

4In this study, we hypothesise that a positive attitude towards the HyFlex model positively influences the intention to use it. This assumption is supported by existing research, which shows that user attitudes significantly affect technology adoption (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh and Bala, 2008). Additionally, we propose that the perceived usefulness of the HyFlex model positively impacts students’ attitudes towards it before they begin using it. This is consistent with findings that perceived usefulness is a major determinant of user attitude (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Finally, we assert that the perceived usefulness of the HyFlex model has a positive effect on students’ intention to use it, aligning with previous studies that highlight the role of perceived usefulness in driving usage intentions (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh and Davis, 2000). The present study intended to answer the following questions:

• Do Mohammed First University students have a positive attitude towards the adoption of the HyFlex mode of learning?

• If so, what are the main factors favouring the acceptance of the HyFlex mode of learning in Mohammed First University?

Literature Review:

Transitioning to the New/Next Normal

5Today we are living in a strange new world, where life could be understood in terms of before and after COVID. We are going through a universal readjustment of many aspects including the educational sphere. With the closure of educational institutions, many universities adopted flexible and new digital teaching and learning strategies to adapt to the ‘New Normal’ (Abad-Segura et al., 2020; Zimmerman, 2020; Xiao, 2019). The term ‘New Normal’ refers to a situation which is different from what has been experienced or been done before but is expected to have become usual or typical. Žižek (2020, p. 3) argues that ‘There is no return to normal, the new “normal” will have to be constructed on the ruins of our old lives, or we will find ourselves in a new barbarism whose signs are already clearly discernible.’

6As the ‘New Normal’ suggests that learning can be anywhere, the existence of brick-and-mortar schools is being questioned. However, even in the `New Normal’ era, the traditional schools seem to still get support, hence the need for innovative approaches and learning modes that blend both face-to-face and online learning styles to meet both the pre- and post-pandemic learning conditions. Following the new or the next normal of the online teaching and learning experiment, there will be a tendency to opt for hybrid modes of education to make courses accessible, flexible, and convenient for learners (Bozkurt and Sharma, 2020).

Designing Learning Environments in Emergencies

7Many countries were not prepared for emergency remote teaching and thus had to suddenly shift from traditional teaching to a distant mode. Compared to online learning in normal circumstances, this was in fact a totally different learning environment (Shohel et al., 2021). After the state of emergency, it was supposed that the educational situation would go back to normalcy. However, after the coronavirus crisis, it became clear that e-Learning had undergone a significant transformation. Education leaders and policy makers are learning new lessons about how to make education available in crisis with a view to designing their own flexible learning systems.

8Different learning scenarios and environments have been designed and which involve distance learning to varying degrees. In emergencies, schools in general may initially return to traditional in-person classes but retain the flexibility to swiftly switch to distance education if another COVID-19 outbreak occurs. Conversely, schools might begin with online learning and plan to transition to traditional in-person classes on a modified basis when it is safe to do so. Blended learning is also a good choice to combine learning that takes place in a school building and in an online environment. Additionally, schools can also move all their learning experiences and services online through both synchronous and asynchronous modalities to limit any health and safety risks. The HyFlex mode teaching and learning scenario which is the object of our study depicts in a more flexible way how the different scenarios could be adjusted to cater for learners’ different needs especially in emergencies.

The HyFlex Mode

9The HyFlex teaching and learning mode combines the notions of ‘hybrid’ and ‘flexible.’ Hybrid or blended learning refers to learning that integrates face-to-face and online learning experiences to meet specific learning objectives while flexible learning means that students are given the chance to choose the mode of instruction that works best for them. Gobeil-Proulx (2019) uses the term ‘comodal’ to refer to Hybrid-Flexible course formats that can be followed face-to-face or remotely by students, and which allows them to choose on a weekly basis the mode of learning that suits them best. Beatty (2019) identified several variations of the HyFlex design, each offering a distinct approach to flexible learning. The Mode-Neutral (2008) design allows students to choose their mode of participation, such as in-person or online, based on their needs. Multi-Access Learning (2009) provides multiple access points for engaging with course content, while Synchronous Learning in Distributed Environments (SLIDE) (2011) emphasises real-time online learning integrated with in-person instruction. gxLearning (2011) combines face-to-face and online components, and Blendsync (2011) offers a blend of synchronous online and in-person sessions. FlexLearning (2012) provides flexible participation options, and Converged Learning (2012) merges various learning modes into a cohesive experience. Peirce Fit (2014) adapts to individual student needs, Multi-Options (2014) supports various engagement methods, and Blendflex (2016) combines blended learning with flexible participation. Comodal (2016) supports simultaneous in-person and online participation, Flexibly Accessible Learning Environment (FALE) (2018) creates an adaptable learning environment, and Remote Live Participation (RLP) (2018) enables remote participation in live classes.

10Choice is a key term in the HyFlex model. Without meaningful choice, there is no flexibility, and without flexibility, all we get is a standard hybrid course. Students should be free to work at their own pace, choose to study particular aspects of a course, and adopt whatever learning style suits them best (Jarvis, 2004; Carone, 2008). In the HyFlex model, learners may choose to participate in face-to-face class sessions, join the class via video conference, or engage asynchronously through coursework. It is also important to recognise that some study subjects may be more or less suitable for online learning and teaching. For instance, subjects that require hands-on practice or real-time interaction may present challenges in an online format, whereas theoretical subjects might adapt more easily to virtual learning environments. Research reports that using the HyFlex mode of teaching and learning is beneficial for both teachers and students (Beatty, 2012; 2014). Teachers deliver the course once instead of separate in-person and online versions of the same course. Students are provided with better access to courses, convenience, and flexibility. The HyFlex course design is based on four key principles: learner choice, equivalency, reusability, and accessibility (Beatty, 2019). However, this model can significantly increase teachers’ workload (Kohnke and Moorhouse, 2021). Learner choice necessitates managing multiple participation modes (in-person, synchronous online, or asynchronous), which requires substantial time to develop and maintain diverse materials. Equivalency involves aligning activities and assessments to ensure consistent learning outcomes across modes. Reusability demands the creation of adaptable learning objects, adding to the planning efforts. Accessibility requires teachers to provide additional support to ensure all students have equitable access to technology and necessary skills. While HyFlex offers flexibility for students, it demands considerable effort from teachers to implement and manage effectively.

Method

Research Design Instrument

11The empirical validation of Theoretical Model of the Acceptability of the HyFlex device (Figure 1) was carried out using a questionnaire administered to students of the faculty of medicine and pharmacy.

12The questionnaire was sent to class leaders from each of the five categories previously mentioned, who then distributed it to their colleagues. 249 responses were received and analysed. Our aim was to collect as many responses as possible so that we could have a large sample, but we got an average response rate: 249/1768 or 15%. We used multi-stage sampling.

13First, we used stratified sampling to ensure we reached students from all categories of profiles, ranging from first-year to fifth-year students. This approach allows us to represent different levels within the student body. Second, we employed network sampling, a method where initial participants help recruit additional participants through their own connections, facilitating access to a broader network of respondents.

14Structural equation modelling was used to examine the causal relationships between variables in our model assessing the acceptability of the HyFlex device. This method is appropriate due to the complexity of our model, which involves both independent and dependent variables (Roussel et al., 2002). The analysis relies on standardised regression coefficients (β) and the Critical Ratio (CR), also known as the T-Statistic. To support our hypotheses, the absolute value of each coefficient should be close to 1, the CR should be ≥ 1.96, and the significance level (P-value) should be below 0.05.

15The following table introduces our hypotheses and variables:

Table 1. Research Hypotheses and Variables

Variables	Research hypotheses
V- The intention to use the HyFlex device. V- Attitude towards the HyFlex device	H1: The favourable attitude towards the HyFlex device has a positive effect on the intention of its use.
V- The perceived usefulness of the HyFlex device.	H2: The perceived usefulness of the HyFlex device has a positive effect on the attitude of students towards it before use. H3: The perceived usefulness of the HyFlex device has a positive effect on students’ intention to use it.
V- Perceived ease of use of the device	H4: The perceived ease of use of the HyFlex device has a positive effect on the attitude of students before its use. H5: The perceived ease of use of the HyFlex device has a positive effect on its perceived usefulness before use.
V- Subjective norms	H6: Subjective norms have a positive effect on the perceived usefulness of the HyFlex device before use.
V- Image construct	H7: The image construct has a positive effect on the perceived usefulness of the HyFlex model before use.
V- The availability of technological resources	H8: The perceived ease of use of the device is positively influenced by the availability of technological resources.
V- Mastery of computer tools	H9: Computer literacy has a positive effect on the perceived ease of use of the technologies adopted as part of the HyFlex system

Defining our Variables

• The intention to use the HyFlex device.

16The intention to use this device is defined as the perceived probability that the learner will adopt the model proposed by the establishment as their means of long-term learning (at least the period of pedagogical continuity). This variable can directly influence the behaviour of the user.

• Attitude towards the HyFlex device.

17The attitude towards the HyFlex device refers to the nature of the judgment, positive or negative, made by the students towards this system. A favourable attitude towards this device is likely to lead to the intention of its use, whereas an unfavourable attitude towards it is unlikely to trigger the intention of its use.

• The perceived usefulness of the HyFlex device.

18The perceived usefulness of the HyFlex device refers to the perceptions and beliefs of students of the gains in performance, effectiveness and efficiency that can result from the use of this system. The perceived usefulness of the HyFlex model positively influences both student attitudes and intentions to use it.

• Perceived ease of use of the device.

19This denotes students’ perceptions of the effort required to easily use the HyFlex system. Thus, the more this modality is perceived as easy to use by the students, the more their attitude will be positive towards it and the more the perceptions of its usefulness will increase, and which will raise its use too.

• Subjective norms.

20Subjective norms refer to the belief that an important person or group of people will approve and support a particular behaviour. Subjective norms are determined by the perceived social pressure from others (here teachers) for an individual to behave in a certain manner and their motivation to comply with those people’s views.

• Image construct.

21The image construct was defined as ‘the degree to which use of an innovation is perceived to enhance one’s image or status in one’s social system’ (Moore and Benbasat, 1991, p. 195)

• The availability of technological resources.

22Technological resources refer to the technological infrastructure required to set up, maintain, and support an e-learning system. The availability of these resources facilitates access to content and promotes perceptions of the ease of use of the method.

• Mastery of computer tools.

23This variable refers to the judgments that a person forms on their ability to use information and communication technology. The mastery of the computer tool is a sine qua non condition in the use of any technology. In our context, the student’s perception of his or her ability to easily use the computer tools made available to him or her will directly affect the perception of the ease of use of the technologies used in this device.

24Figure 2 shows the Technology Acceptance Model that we adapted to the context of our research, highlighting where the role of the teacher and the support they offer come into play.

Sample

25Our sample comprised 249 students from the faculty of medicine and pharmacy affiliated with Mohammed First University in Oujda (Morocco). The Faculty of Medicine supervised 1,768 students distributed as follows:

Table 2. Number of Students Enrolled in the Faculty of Medicine, Oujda, Morocco

Year	Enrolled students
First year	354
Second year	367
Third year	375
Fourth year	326
Fifth year	346

26Our study population was relatively young (between 19 and 25 years old) with a concentration in the age group 19 to 21 years old (>70%). This means that these students had good links with ICT since they are part of a generation that has grown up with digital technologies, which can positively influence their attitudes towards the HyFlex model. Additionally, the majority of students (52%) settle in the city where the faculty is located (Oujda), while 17% reside in cities outside the Oriental region. The other students live in cities at an approximate distance of 60 km to 380 km. This can also be a factor favouring face-to-face courses over online courses.

Nature of the Device:

27Regarding the techno-pedagogical preparation of the model, the university’s technical service installed IP cameras in three amphitheatres. These cameras can be controlled by the teachers using OBS software, allowing them to choose the view to display to learners (the presentation with the teacher’s voice, the presentation and the teacher simultaneously, or the teacher alone) (Figure 3). The team also created three Google Meet links, managed by representatives of each group. If a student cannot join using the first link, they can use the second, and so on. Each link can accommodate up to 100 students. Students can review the recording once the teacher makes it available.

28The administration already had lists of students present at the faculty and those who opted for distance courses. The mornings were intended for students of the 1st and 2nd year, while the afternoons were reserved for students of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th year. This helped us to use the dedicated spaces wisely. For the collection of questions, each group designated a student to gather the questions asked to the teacher. The Moodle digital platform was used to manage students’ internships. The average class attendance was between 50 to 60 students.

Results and Discussion

The Access to the Faculty’s Digital Services

29Access to the faculty’s digital services and the frequency of their use showed high rates. More than 70% of students spend between one and six hours online for learning (Table 3). This high usage is certainly influenced by the COVID-19 emergency but also reflects a tendency among young people to use digital technology. Thus, the teaching context provided an appropriate environment for the integration of the HyFlex mode of teaching and learning at the faculty of medicine and pharmacy.

Table 3. Frequency of Use of Digital Services to Study (time/day)

Variable	Characteristics
	Numbers	Percentages
Time/day of use of digital services to study
Less than 1 h/d	6	2.4%
1–3 h/d	78	31.32%
4–6 h/d	100	40.16%
7–9 h/d	23	9.23%
More than 9 h/d	2	0.8%
Non-regular frequency	40	16.06%

Students’ Attitudes towards the HyFlex Model

30The study showed that most respondents had a positive attitude towards the adopted HyFlex model and expressed their intention to use it if they had access to it. This can be attributed to their interest in the courses offered at the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Oujda (these courses do not necessarily pertain to ICT training). Several reasons contributed to student dissatisfaction with this model, including technical problems (14%), preference for face-to-face learning (12%), issues related to travelling to be present on campus (10%), the risk of contamination in class (29%), and lack of motivation for this modality (19%).

Validating Our Research Hypotheses

31The empirical validation of our research model revealed four main factors in determining the adoption of the HyFlex device, namely attitude, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and availability of technological resources (Table 4). The attitude towards the use of the HyFlex device appears to be the factor having the most influence on the intention of its use by the students surveyed. This result is consistent with most studies done on TAM, which have found a very significant link between these two variables. Thus, a favourable attitude towards this device, manifested by positive judgments, would trigger the intention to use it and, conversely, a negative attitude towards it would risk generating refusal and leading to non-use. This result should be taken into consideration by the institution in the planning and design of innovative systems. It must ensure that the necessary conditions are met to promote favourable attitudes among students, through communication, awareness, and the integration of students in the decision-making process, its adoption, and its implementation.

Table 4. The Empirical Validation of our Research Hypotheses

Hypotheses	Variables	Standardised regression coefficients (β)	Critical Ratio (CR)	P-Value	Validation Status
H1	Attitude/Intention	0.986	9,169	***	Validated
H2	Perceived usefulness/Attitude	0.828	5,540	***	Validated
H3	Perceived usefulness/Intention	-0.075	-0.796	0.426	Not validated
H4	Perceived ease of use/Attitude	0.087	0.285	0.776	Not validated
H5	Perceived ease of use/Perceived usefulness	0.858	13,842	***	Validated
H6	Subjective Norms/Perceived usefulness	0.051	0.959	0.338	Not validated
H7	Image construct/Perceived usefulness	0.064	-0.040	0.968	Not validated
H8	Perceived ease of use/ Availability of technological resources	1,049	5,728	***	Validated
H9	Computer literacy/ Perceived ease of use	-0.193	-1,138	0.255	Not validated

32The study also showed that the perceived usefulness of the HyFlex device, unlike most studies on the TAM, does not directly influence the intention of its use. However, the perceived usefulness influences intention indirectly via its effect on attitude, but no direct significant link was detected between perceived usefulness and intention. This result can be explained by the absence of the experience effect. In fact, the usefulness of a technology cannot be clearly identified before its use. Perceptions of usefulness may vary depending on user experience. The nature of activity and the type of technology may also influence the effect of the perceived usefulness on intention. The attitude towards the HyFlex, as a direct determinant of the intention, is influenced by the perceived usefulness of this method. The more students perceive the device as a useful training method allowing them to develop their skills, increase their productivity and improve their performance, the more they will have a favourable attitude towards it and vice versa. Therefore, the administrative managers of the university should highlight the positive aspects and advantages of the HyFlex mode (better learning experiences for students and financial savings for the university) so as to promote its usefulness and, thus, foster a favourable attitude leading to a behavioural intention of its use. This result is confirmed in several previous studies (Davis and Venkatesh, 2000; Subramanian, 1994).

33Unlike perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use does not have a significant positive effect on students’ attitudes towards the HyFlex model. This finding contrasts with the majority of studies using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis and Venkatesh, 2000; Jawadi and El Akremi, 2006). This discrepancy may be attributed to the fact that the studies listed were conducted before COVID. Given that students today are highly accustomed to technology, ease of use may play a lesser role in shaping their attitudes towards new models like HyFlex. In fact, even though some students perceive the HyFlex model as easy to use, they do not express a favourable attitude towards it. This can be explained by the level of academic qualification of the students and their ease with ICT, which means that technical difficulties do not constitute an obstacle to the intention of using e-learning. In other words, even if they would perceive the device as easy to use, they would not necessarily use it unless its usefulness is proven. Importance is probably given to usefulness and not to ease, since difficulties can be overcome by training and assistance actions. The absence of the effect of the perceived ease of use on attitude may also be due to the character of the perceived use: voluntary or obligatory. Indeed, if students perceive the use of the HyFlex device as mandatory, they will develop negative attitudes towards it. Moreover, if flexibility and autonomy in use are not ensured, students will not develop favourable attitudes towards e-learning. This is based on the premise that when students perceive the use of a new technology or model as mandatory, without sufficient autonomy or choice, they may feel a lack of control, leading to negative attitudes. Research in technology acceptance (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000) supports this by highlighting that perceived voluntariness plays a significant role in shaping positive attitudes towards technology. However, we acknowledge the need for additional empirical data in this specific context to further justify this claim.

34Consistent with most studies relying on the TAM, including Davis et al. (1989) and Lim (2001), our research has shown that the perceived ease of use of this device has a positive effect on its usefulness. The more students perceive the HyFlex model as easy to use, the more the perception of its usefulness increases. Complicated and difficult systems will decrease the share of gains that can be generated from their use. Thus, to increase the perceived usefulness of the HyFlex device among students and encourage them to use it, designers should ensure that the infrastructure and available tools are easily exploitable. However, the ease of use, referred to here, concerns the pedagogical and organisational aspects more than the technological dimension since, as described above, students are at ease with ICT.

35Social factors, specifically Subjective Norms and Image Construct, do not influence the perceived usefulness of the HyFlex model. This observation aligns with the findings of Davis (1989), Mathieson (1991), and El Akremi et al. (2006). Subjective Norms refer to the perceived social pressures from peers and teachers regarding the use of the HyFlex model. Despite these social influences, neither the perceived usefulness of the model nor the intention to use it are significantly affected. This suggests that, in this context, social pressures and the opinions of others do not greatly impact students’ perceptions of the model’s utility or their intention to adopt it.

36The question of whether the use is voluntary or mandatory might explain this result. Venkatesh and Davis (2000) found that Subjective Norm had a significant effect on the intention to use technology in mandatory contexts, whereas it had no effect in voluntary contexts. Therefore, the voluntary nature of using the HyFlex model might contribute to the lack of influence from Subjective Norms in this study.

37Students do not perceive the use of the HyFlex model as essential for enhancing their image as committed students within the faculty. This result highlights the pragmatic nature of their acceptance of the model. In other words, students view the HyFlex model as valuable not for its potential to improve their professional status, but for its practical benefits in terms of productivity and efficiency. This is based on the idea that students tend to evaluate the HyFlex model primarily in terms of its functional advantages—such as the ability to manage their time and study more efficiently—rather than as a means to enhance their professional image or status within the faculty. Previous studies on student perceptions of blended learning models have indicated a similar trend, where pragmatic benefits like flexibility and convenience are prioritized over the symbolic value of commitment or professional enhancement. However, we acknowledge that further empirical evidence could help substantiate this interpretation in the context of the HyFlex model.

38However, the role of the ‘Image Construct’—which relates to how using the technology might affect students’ perceptions of their own professional image—should not be overlooked. To enhance the impact of this dimension, it may be beneficial for administrators to implement a reward system (e.g., badges, certifications) that acknowledges and motivates students for their engagement with technology-based training. Such measures could help align students’ perceptions of the HyFlex model with their professional and learning goals, potentially increasing its adoption and effectiveness.

39Computer literacy does not impact the perceived ease of use of the HyFlex model. This finding contradicts the results of most previous studies (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000; Hong et al., 2002), which typically show that higher computer literacy enhances the perceived ease of use of technology. This discrepancy may suggest that, in the context of the HyFlex model, factors other than computer literacy play a more significant role in shaping students’ perceptions of ease of use. Mastering the computer tool does not mean that the device will be easy to use for students, especially with the technical problems that sometimes overwhelm them. This is explained by the fact that students do not attribute ease to the simple mastery of computer tools. Other aspects are involved in the definition of ease, in particular the pedagogical aspects. This is based on the notion that ease of use in educational technology is influenced not only by the technical mastery of tools but also by factors such as pedagogical design, the clarity of course content, and the level of support provided by instructors. Research in educational technology acceptance (e.g., Davis, 1989; Venkatesh and Bala, 2008) suggests that ease of use is a multi-dimensional construct, encompassing both technical and instructional components. However, further empirical data could help validate this claim in the specific context of the HyFlex model. To improve the perception of the ease of use of this device, designers must offer platforms that are convivial and adapted to the activities and tasks of students.

40The availability of technological resources, as a facilitating condition, exerts a positive effect on the perceived ease of use. Indeed, a HyFlex system with a reliable technological infrastructure will be perceived as easy to use. On the other hand, the reliability of the equipment and servers associated with a poor quality of Internet connection would reduce the interest that students can take in the training system. This explains why the perceived ease of the method is due, for the students, to extrinsic and not intrinsic factors (mastery of the computer tool). Managers should ensure the availability of sufficient technological resources (computers, high-speed Internet, platform, etc.) before the launch of such a project. However, this availability does not only concern the quantitative aspect; the emphasis should also be placed on the qualitative aspect in a way that makes the platform appropriate to the nature of the activity, allowing communication, exchange, acquisition, and sharing of knowledge.

Conclusion

41In this research, we aimed to identify the factors that influence the acceptance of the HyFlex mode of learning among students at Mohammed First University of Oujda (Morocco). Using a research model inspired by various extensions of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), we conducted an empirical study with 249 students from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy at Mohammed First University who experienced the HyFlex environment during the fall semester of 2020–2021. Our goal was to analyse the impact of perceptions of usefulness and ease of use of the HyFlex model, as well as facilitating conditions and individual characteristics—primarily the availability of technological resources and mastery of computational tools—on the behavioural intention to adopt this approach.

42The empirical validation of our research model revealed four main factors determining the adoption of the HyFlex model: attitude, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and availability of technological resources. The empirical validation of our research model showed that among the four factors—attitude, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and availability of technological resources—the most influential factor in the adoption of the HyFlex model was perceived usefulness. This indicates that students are more likely to adopt the model if they see clear practical benefits for their learning. Attitude also played a significant role, as a positive disposition towards the model facilitated its acceptance. Perceived ease of use was important but slightly less impactful, and while the availability of technological resources was necessary for adoption, it was not as strongly predictive as the other factors. University managers should concentrate on these key factors to promote e-learning acceptance among students. To better implement the HyFlex mode of learning, it is essential for university managers to emphasise the positive aspects and benefits of the HyFlex model for students’ personal and academic development. This can enhance its perceived usefulness and foster a positive attitude, ultimately leading to increased behavioural intention to use it.

43Additionally, it is crucial to address the challenges of blending online and face-to-face elements in the HyFlex approach, particularly in a field such as medicine where practical and interactive elements are vital. A critical focus on how to effectively integrate these components is necessary to ensure a successful learning experience.

44Moreover, university managers should prioritise pedagogical and organisational aspects over purely technological concerns. Introducing a reward system (e.g., badges, certifications) could also motivate students to engage with technology-based training. Finally, managers must ensure that sufficient technological resources (computers, high-speed Internet, platforms, etc.) are available before launching a HyFlex project to support its successful implementation.

45This study has many limitations. First, the limited sample size or lack of diversity may affect the generalisability of the results. Second, the short duration of the study cannot to capture long-term impacts. Third, relying on self-reported data can introduce bias. Fourth, differences in access and technological proficiency may not have been considered. Finally, Results may be contextual and specific to the university or program studied.

46This research projects future studies that may focus on exploring the long-term effects of HyFlex models and compare outcomes between HyFlex and other learning environments. Additionally, other studies may analyse the impact of digital skills on engagement and study how demographic factors influence engagement. Further studies may also evaluate the effectiveness of reward systems on student motivation and Investigate challenges faced by faculty in implementing HyFlex models. Cross-Institutional studies can also Identify best practices across multiple institutions.