Introduction2

A Brief History of Buddhism in Modern Indonesia

6Buddhism in present-day Indonesia has little, if not nothing, to do with the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Srivijaya and Majapahit. Most Buddhists in Indonesia today are ethnic Chinese who migrated to the Dutch East Indies during the colonial period or descended from immigrant ancestors. In 1619, the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie) founded Batavia (present-day Jakarta) and encouraged Chinese merchants, who had long been engaging in the spices trade at the neighboring port kingdom of Banten, to migrate to Batavia. The Chinese served the Dutch as contractors and tax farmers, recruited laborers and craftsmen from China, and supplied bricks and timber for buildings and city walls in the Dutch colonial port settlement over the next two centuries (Kuhn 2008). The arrival and settlement of Chinese immigrants contributed to the spread of Chinese Buddhism into the Dutch East Indies from as early as the seventeenth century. Kim Tek Ie (Jinde yuan 金德院, also known as Vihāra Dharma Bhakti), the oldest Buddhist temple in Indonesia, was established in 1650 in Glodok, a Chinese district in the southwest of Batavia. It was a popular place of worship among the overseas Chinese community and served as a residence for Chinese migrant monks. However, little is known about the identity of these monks and their religious activities in Batavia (Franke et al. 1997: xliv–5; Salmon and Lombard 1980: xviii)^. From the temple inscriptions, it appears that the kapitan and his Chinese community leaders were behind the management and funding of the temple, while monks were mainly ritual specialists serving the overseas Chinese community (Franke et al. 1997: 11–13).

7Subsequent large-scale Chinese migration to the East Indies began in the mid-nineteenth century and lasted through the 1930s (Kuhn 2008). Indonesian Buddhists have generally considered Venerable Pen Ching (Benqing 本清, 1878–1962, also known as Mahasthavira Aryamula) as the first Chinese monk to actively propagate the Dhamma in the Dutch East Indies (Lembaga Litbang Majelis Buddhayana Indonesia 2005). Pen Ching was born in 1878 in Fujian, China. At the age of 19, he became a novice at Guanghua Monastery (Guanghua si 廣化寺) under the tutelage of Venerable Thung Chan (Tongzhan ͨտ). In 1901, Pen Ching traveled south to Dutch Java for the first time to propagate the Dhamma. He resided at the Tay Kak Sie (Dajue si 通湛), an eighteenth century Chinese temple located in Semarang, Central Java, where he taught the Dhamma for three years before returning to China. After his return, Pen Ching was nominated as abbot of the Guanghua Monastery, but he declined the invitation, and went back to the East Indies in the following year. In 1926, Pen Ching went to Jakarta and resided in a hut in the yard of a small Buddhist shrine, known as the Jade Lotus Hall (Yulian tang 玉蓮堂), in Petak Sinkian. When the shrine was relocated in 1949, the ownership of the land was transferred to Pen Ching. By then, the Chinese Civil War (1946–1949) with the impending Communist victory meant that Pen Ching could not return to China. Thus, he decided to settle in Indonesia and expanded the shrine into a monastery. In 1951, Pen Ching established the Kong Hoa Sie (Guanghua si 廣化寺), named after the Guanghua Monastery in China, which became an important Chinese Buddhist temple in postcolonial Indonesia (Chia 2018; Juangari 1995; Majelis Buddhayāna Indonesia 1990; Salmon and Lombard 1980).

9During the New Order era (1966–1998), the Suharto regime was suspicious of Chinese Indonesians’ ties to communist China and introduced a repressive ethnic policy to assimilate the Chinese Indonesian population. The Indonesian government promulgated a series of laws and presidential orders to assimilation (pribumization) aimed at Chinese Indonesians (Suryadinata 2007: 266). Furthermore, following a ban on all Chinese events in public, Buddhist temples were not allowed to organize religious ceremonies for Chinese festivals, such as the Lunar New Year, the Hungry Ghost Festival, and the Mid-Autumn Festival. Consequently, Buddhists could no longer use Chinese languages and characters in their liturgy and scriptures (Chia 2018: 52–53). As told to me by my informants, Mahāyāna scriptures and mantras in Chinese had to be transliterated into Roman alphabet during the New Order period. Therefore, the Buddhayāna organizations turned to Pāli-language texts together with a selection of transliterated Chinese Buddhist texts for their liturgical and ritual practices (Ananda 2015; Dharmavimala Thera 2015). In addition, Ashin Jinarakkhita introduced the controversial concept of “Sang Hyang Ādi-Buddha” to make Buddhism compatible with the first principle of the Pancasila, the five philosophical pillars of Indonesia (see Brown 1987; Chia 2018; Ekowati 2012; Kimura 2003). Although Ashin Jinarakkhita’s concept of Sang Hyang Ādi-Buddha was accepted by Suharto’s government, thus ensuring the survival of Buddhism during the New Order era, he faced opposition from his Theravādin disciples and colleagues who claimed that he was deviating from “pure” Buddhist teachings. Consequently, five of his disciples left the Buddhayāna Sangha and founded a new Theravāda organization in Indonesia (Chia 2018: 58–59).

11Following the fall of Suharto and the anti-Chinese riots in May 1998, Indonesia went through a process of democratization and reformation (reformasi). The post-Suharto era saw the lifting of Chinese assimilation legislations and an increase in democratic space. This gave rise to the revival of Chinese culture, language, media, and religious practices (Hoon 2008; Setijadi 2016; Stenberg 2019). Concomitantly, there was a resurgence of Chinese festival celebrations and religious rites at Buddhist temples in various parts of Indonesia (Suprajitno 2011; Suprajitno 2013; Syukur 2010). In the course of my fieldwork in Indonesia over the last few years, I have noticed that the younger generation of Chinese Indonesians born during the New Order identify themselves as Buddhists. Although many of them can neither read nor speak Chinese, they are now learning to recite Chinese-language Buddhist scriptures using texts in pinyin romanization. But more interestingly, I have observed that a number of Indonesian Buddhist organizations have begun to rely on popular music to reach out to this younger generation of Chinese Indonesian Buddhists. While some temples have rearranged Buddhist chants with new instrumentation, other groups have produced and performed Buddhist popular and rock music. The establishment of True Direction and the development of its contemporary Buddhist music can therefore be understood in the context of growth and evolution of Buddhist institutions in post-New Order Indonesia.

Irvyn Wongso and the Founding of True Direction

12To understand the founding of True Direction, one needs to first know its founder, Irvyn Wongso (Huang Junzhong 黄俊中, b. in 1978). True direction, as I would argue, both as a band and as an organization, is so closely intertwined with Irvyn Wongso, such that it is not possible to speak of it in either sense without referencing Wongso’s ideals, values, and activities. Irvyn Wongso was born in 1978 to a middle-class Chinese Indonesian family in Medan, the capital of North Sumatra province. He indicated that both his parents are Buddhists, and his devout Buddhist mother often prayed and dedicated merits to him at temples during her pregnancy. Wongso claimed that he became interested in Buddhism at a young age, and wanted to become a monk when he was seven years old. However, Wongso’s parents did not want their son to leave the household, and instead, sent him to study in a Christian missionary school, hoping that he would change his mind. At the Christian school, Wongso took bible classes and sang in a church choir. As Wongso shared with me, his churchgoing experience was the first time he realized that popular music could be used for religious activities (Wongso 2017a).

13Despite his education at a Christian school, Irvyn Wongso did not convert to Christianity. On the contrary, Wongso’s interest in Buddhism developed without his parents’ knowledge as he learned more about Buddhist teachings from the Internet. During that time, Wongso studied the Dhamma from various Buddhist websites and Internet chat groups. As his knowledge of Buddhism grew, Wongso enjoyed engaging in virtual debates with other Buddhists. As Wongso candidly shared with me, he thought that he was becoming a “bad” and “quarrelsome” person by intentionally using Buddhist teachings to argue with and criticize others. Wongso subsequently turned to learning the meditation practices of Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna Buddhist traditions, hoping to make himself a better person. He also traveled to various places to further his knowledge of the Buddhist teachings, claiming that he studied with lamas in Bhutan and in the Himalayas as well as forest monks in Thailand. According to Wongso, he is open to and respects the different Buddhist sects, but he identifies himself as a Theravāda Buddhist. He also said that his meditation training, coupled with his encounters with various Buddhist teachers and friends during his religious travels, inspired many of the songs he wrote and composed for True Direction, which I will discuss later (Wongso 2017a).

14Just like his Buddhist belief, Irvyn Wongso became interested in music at a young age. He started learning to play the piano from his mother who was a music teacher. And to my surprise, although Wongso can play the piano quite well, he cannot read music notes and has learned everything, as he puts it, “by ear and by heart” (Wongso 2017a). After completing his middle school education, he left for high school in Western Australia, and continued his college education majoring in computer systems engineering at Curtin University in Perth, where he met his wife and they now have three sons. Wongso jokingly pointed out to me that his college degree has absolutely nothing to do with his interests in Buddhism and music, and especially, his current career in the music industry. In a strange twist of fate, Wongso returned to Indonesia after college and joined Nuansa Musik, the largest Yamaha music instrument dealer and music school in Indonesia, and had risen through the ranks to become the Chief Executive Officer and President Director of the company with some 850 employees under his charge (Wongso 2016a; Wongso 2017a).

15Given his interest in Buddhism and music, Irvyn Wongso considered the possibility of using music to propagate the Buddhist teachings. In an online autobiographical interview, he highlights the intertwining relationship between Buddhism and music, explaining how music can be used as a tool to propagate the Dhamma and unite Buddhist communities around the world:

For as long as I can remember, music and Buddhism is [sic] almost like water and oil. But we need both in our life. Don’t you think? For many years, I’ve been a Buddhist. I’ve learned the Dhamma from all three different traditions. My bed sides are full of Dhamma books. I even hiked the Himalayan Mountains. Stayed in cave somewhere in the Thai forest to practice meditation. I never thought that I need music for my spiritual progress. Until one day, I noticed that many of my friends are turning their backs away from the Dhamma. And my children, they are listening to music which are not even suitable for them far from the Dhamma. And my Mum, she told me when she die [sic], she doesn’t need all those rituals, just play her my song. So maybe I don’t need music, but we all need the Dhamma. Don’t you think? And music can open the door to Dhamma, just a little bit wider. Music also unites, not only people but also nations. Now we have come together as one, joining hands, to walk together in the path of the Dhamma, and to share the Dhamma through music (Wongso 2016b).

16As the reference to his views on Buddhism and music suggests, Irvyn Wongso believes that music can bring his family and friends to study the Buddha’s teachings. More importantly, he considers music as an ecumenical platform to unite Buddhists not only to learn the Dhamma, but also to share it with others. In my interview with Wongso, I probed more into his interest in Buddhist music and his motivations behind the establishment of True Direction. He candidly revealed his observation of the Buddhist scene in present-day Indonesia and highlighted the need for a Buddhist youth organization:

• 10 The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is one of the three piṭakas (Pāli for “baskets”) constituting the Pāli Canon, (...)

In Indonesia, people only go to vihara or temple on special days. Many people come just to pray and get blessings from the monks. But on normal days, they don’t come. And those who come are usually the [elderly] aunties and uncles who have nothing to do at home. And another group of temple-goers are the young kids—the Sunday school children. They are there because their parents just need some sort of cheap childcare when they go out on Sundays. So that is why they put their kids there. But I notice that there is a missing link between the young kids and the older generation. And it’s the youths! There are obviously many reasons why they don’t go to temples willingly. One thing is because we haven’t been able to communicate the Dhamma through their language properly… You know, Dhamma is very deep and beautiful but if you don’t speak to youths in their language, it means nothing to them. We need to attract more youths to come and learn the Dhamma. In my [music] industry, the curriculum for music classes is changing every year and we learn to teach music better… but we don’t have this in Buddhism. So [Buddhists] assume that everyone loves to meditate and read the Abhidhamma.10 One thing I feel that is crucial in our society not just today, but forever, is music… But we don’t have many of this in Buddhism. So True Direction aims to [spread the] Dhamma through music (Wongso 2017a).

17On June 16, 2015, Irvyn Wongso founded True Direction to achieve his aspiration of spreading Buddhism with the use of popular music that appeals to the young. According to him, the organization had its origins in the auditorium of his music company in Jakarta, which looks just like a Christian church auditorium (see Figure 1). Irvyn Wongso points out that the vision of True Direction is to become an “International Buddhist Musicians Fellowship” that “practices the Buddha Dhamma, gives positive contribution to the community and active in sharing the Dhamma especially through music” (True Direction 2018; Wongso 2017a). True Direction has five objectives: 1) to improve the

18quality and competency of Buddhist musicians through workshops and training to meet the needs of the changing world; 2) to create high quality and distinctive Dhamma music that would be accepted by the community to inspire positive transformation; 3) to create a space for Buddhist musicians to grow, receive support in music composition, and to feel appreciated for their effort; 4) to serve as a venue for Buddhist musicians to deepen their understanding and practice of the Dhamma in their daily lives; and 5) to share the Dhamma and happiness with the society, and direct them to the noble path (True Direction 2018). The organization has been quite successful in recruiting young members since its establishment. According to Wongso, True Direction has approximately 120 musicians and most of its members are Chinese Indonesians between the ages of 15 and 40. The organization has grown quickly, and it currently has several hundred members and over 4,000 likes on Facebook (True Direction 2018; Wongso 2017a). My engagement with the followers indicates that most of them are Chinese Indonesians from middle-class backgrounds. Many of them are either college students or graduates in various professional fields.

19It is significant to note that True Direction operates quite differently from the majority of the Buddhist organizations in Indonesia. First, Irvyn Wongso mentions that he has yet to formally register True Direction as a religious organization with the Indonesian government and does not intend to make his organization a typical Buddhist temple. Rather, he wants True Direction to function as a music school that produces contemporary Buddhist songs and trains Buddhist musicians in western instruments, such as guitar, piano, drum, and keyboard. Therefore, the organization focuses on running music workshops, composing Buddhist songs, and spreading Buddhist music on various social media platforms. Second, Wongso encourages open membership in his organization. Although Wongso identifies himself as a Theravādin, he wants True Direction to remain non-denominational and welcomes Buddhists from all traditions to join his organization. Furthermore, True Direction also conducts music workshops for Buddhists from other temples, hoping that they will form their own bands and use contemporary Buddhist songs for Dhamma propagation in their respective organizations in the long run (Wongso 2017a). For instance, Ardy Wong, whom I will discuss later, was one of the key vocalists for True Direction’s band before leaving to set up another Buddhist rock band in Indonesia (Wong 2017).

20True Direction serves as an intriguing case study to understand the development of contemporary Buddhist music, demonstrating how rock songs are used as a tool for evangelizing the younger generation. To quote Wongso’s (2017a) own words, the attempt to “share the Dhamma through music” with youths involves the production of contemporary Buddhist songs as well as the training of Buddhist musicians in western instruments and popular music. The transformation of Buddhist music, from liturgical chant to religious rock, formed the basis for the production of True Direction’s first music album, which I will examine in the following section.

The Making of Buddhist Rock

22The lead song “Dhamma Is My Way,” which is the only English song in the album, closely resembles a Christian praise and worship song (True Direction 2016). However, it is clear that Irvyn Wongso, who wrote the music and lyrics, was quick to point out to me that contrary to what many people had thought, he did not receive the inspiration to write the song from Christian rock music, but from practicing meditation in a cave in northern Thailand. He claimed that his meditation experiences helped him understand the “truth” that the Buddha taught and made him realize that “the Dhamma is [his] way to happiness and salvation” (Wongso 2017a). Regardless of whether Wongso’s meditation experiences are meant to be taken literally or have been stylized to fit the expectations of his Buddhist colleagues and members, it is clear that Wongso recognizes that music serves as an effective tool for him to share his faith with the younger generation.

• 12 See Musixmatch (2015).

“Dhamma Is My Way”¹²

I’ve been looking for so long,
Through the darkest path of all.
Climbing up only to fall, again,
To find the one eternal light.

In the darkest time of night,
I see the beautiful moonlight.
Through the darkest time of life,
I finally see the truth.

The truth that blows away,
The dark clouds in my mind,
Now I have found the way.

Chorus:

Only Dhamma is my way,
From now and forever.
No other way is mine,
Until the end of time.

23Another popular song from the album, “Semoga Semua Hidup Berbahagia” (May All Beings Be Happy), is based on the Pāli phrase, “Sabbe sattā sukhi hontu.” The lyrics, which are based on teachings from the Mettā Sutta (Discourse on Loving-Kindness), are translated in the table below. According to Irvyn Wongso, he wrote this Indonesian-language song as a prayer for all sentient beings, hoping that they will always be well and happy.

Semua yang disini, Wahai saudaraku, Mari satukan hati, Pancarkan cinta kasih. Bebaskan diri dari dengki, Yang mencengkram hati, Kembali disini, Hanya di saat ini. Dengan penuh ketulusan, Dan kelembutan, Kepada semua, Di segenap alam. Reff: Semoga semua hidup berbahagia, Aman dan selamat, Sehat sejahtera. Selamanya...

Everything here, O, my brother, Let’s unite our hearts, [And] Radiate loving kindness. Free yourself from envy, That grips the heart, Come back here, Only in this moment. With full sincerity, And tenderness, To all, In all of nature. Chorus: May all beings be happy, Safe and trouble-free, Healthy [and] well. Forever...

25In her study of Chinese Buddhist music, Pei-yen Chen (2005) considers Buddhist devotional song (fojiao gequ 佛教歌曲) as songs “rather than commercial in intent, have been meant to promote Buddhism” (Chen 2005: 272) and Buddhist commercial music (shangpin fojiao yinyue 商品佛教音樂) as “fashionable” Buddhist music that “does not necessarily emphasize evangelism,” “follows the form of western art songs,” and “produced by record companies” (Chen 2005: 277). However, in the case of the Dhamma Is My Way album, we see an interesting fusion of Buddhist devotional song and commercial music. True Direction produces contemporary Buddhist songs in the form of rock music for devotion and evangelism, and at the same time, aims to sell their music albums in the commercial music markets in Indonesia and on the Internet.

26Following the release of Dhamma Is My Way music album, True Direction organized several “Dhamma sharing” tours to promote the album in various parts of Indonesia, including Jakarta, Medan, Tangerang, and Yogyakarta. The organization also produced several music videos for the songs in the album and made them freely available on the Internet (True Direction 2016; Wongso 2017a). A number of recent studies have pointed out that Buddhist organizations began to rely more heavily on the Internet and various social media platforms for Dhamma propagation and to connect with their young members (see Cheong et al. 2011; Huang 2017). True Direction is also quick to jump on this bandwagon and has utilized YouTube and social media platforms, such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter to promote the music videos of their songs. As Irvyn Wongso explains, many young people in Indonesia are not interested in visiting temples or reading the Buddhist scriptures. Since many of them spend their leisure time surfing the web and swiping their smartphones, Wongso believes that posting Buddhist songs and messages on social media sites that young people regularly visit is an effective strategy to reach out to them (Wongso 2017a). The songs in album became a hit among young Buddhists in Indonesia and among Buddhist youth groups in the region. From my online research, I observed that some of the Buddhist youths in Indonesia, who are unaffiliated with True Direction, performed these songs and had them recorded and uploaded online (see, for instance, Citta Obhasa 2018; Harijanto 2017; The ALPADH 2016). Therefore, building on the vision of “Dhamma through music,” Irvyn Wongso reveals that his long-term plan for True Direction is to propagate the “Dhamma through films,” such as short films and feature animations (Wongso 2017a).

27Since most of the songs in the album are in Bahasa Indonesia, True Direction’s primary audiences are Indonesian teenagers and young adults between the ages of 15 and 40 years old. However, Irvyn Wongso was surprised that the songs were also well-received by Buddhists in Malaysia and Singapore. For example, when the Singaporean Buddhist community organized the “Sadhu for the Music,” a joint music concert featuring Buddhist musicians from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore in 2016, True Direction was among one of the organizations invited to perform at the event (Sadhu for the Music 2016). Notably, the Singaporean organizers gave Irvyn Wongso the honor of performing a duet with renowned Malaysian Buddhist composer and singer, Imee Ooi (Huang Huiyin 黄慧音), who is known for performing new arrangements and compositions of Buddhist chants in a “calming and relaxing” manner (Loo et al. 2012: 7072). For the final piece of the concert, a duet entitled “The Metta Moment,” Irvyn Wongso sang Imee Ooi’s “Chant of Metta,” while Ooi performed Wongso’s “Semoga Semua Hidup Berbahagia” (Wongso 2016c).

28Subsequently, True Direction was invited to perform at various Buddhist organizations in Malaysia and Singapore, such as the Bodhi Buddhist Fellowship Malaysia (Puti Gongzuofang 菩提工作坊) in Kuala Lumpur, the Buddhist Gem Fellowship in Malacca, and the Buddhist Fellowship in Singapore (Anonymous Video 2017; BGF Youth Connection 2016; Wongso 2016d). Bodhi Buddhist Fellowship’s youth band recorded a rearranged version of “Semoga Semua Hidup Berbahagia,” which added a new rap in English (Bodhi Buddhist Fellowship Malaysia 2016).

From Buddhist Rock to Meditation Retreat

30Despite its success in the local and regional Buddhist scene, True Direction and its contemporary music are not spared criticism from a number of Indonesian Buddhists. In an interview with Buddhist magazine, Buddhazine, Irvyn Wongso laments that some Indonesian Buddhists are “conservative” and frown upon the use of contemporary Buddhist music in Dhamma propagation. He also reveals that the “unappreciative” attitude of the Buddhist community affected the sales of True Direction’s music albums. Wongso emphasizes that, on the contrary, Indonesian Christians and Muslims who knew about him and his music, gave him a “thumbs up” for his innovative methods to teach and share his faith with others (Tanuwidjaja 2015).

31From my fieldwork and research, I found that it is true that a number of Indonesian Buddhists are critical of Wongso and his organization. While some believed that Wongso is trying to replace existing Buddhist devotional practices with Christian-style praise and worship, others expressed concern that True Direction is promoting “unorthodox” Buddhist teachings to corrupt the minds of the younger generation. However, it is hard to gauge the proportion of Indonesian Buddhists disagreeing with True Direction’s music. Interestingly, Wongso (2017a) candidly remarked that because of these “fake news” about him, as he put it, he had been “blacklisted and banned” from speaking at several Buddhist temples in Indonesia. What Wongso shared with me, nonetheless, reveals the competition between Indonesian Buddhists who adhere to familiar Buddhist devotional practices, considering themselves as “orthodox” Buddhism, and those who drastically innovate and repackage the faith to appeal to a younger audience. This tension, I argue, stems from, first, a competition for young membership among Buddhist organizations in Indonesia, and second, differences in the interpretation of what constitutes “correct” Buddhist devotional practices.

32More significantly, contrary to the critics’ assumption, I observed that True Direction produces contemporary Buddhist songs to complement, not replace, common Buddhist devotional practices. Although the music and image of True Direction closely resemble a modern Christian church, Irvyn Wongso emphasizes that his organization will not become a Buddhist church and introduce Christian-style worship into its activities (Wongso 2017a). In his interview with Buddhazine, Wongso discloses that he actually prefers meditation over singing and producing music albums (Tanuwidjaja 2015). Therefore, it came as no surprise when Wongso (2017a) repeatedly reminded me during our interview that it was meditation rather than Christian rock music that inspired his Buddhist songwriting endeavor.

33Wongso recognizes that True Direction is successful in using Buddhist rock music as a tool to attract young people to Buddhism, but stresses that it should not be the only focus of his organization. According to him, True Direction organizes regular gatherings for its members to recite the Buddhist scriptures and practice meditation. This is because Wongso wants to introduce Buddhist devotional practices to young Buddhists to “deepen their understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and apply the Dhamma to their daily lives” (Wongso 2017a). For this reason, common devotional practices such as scripture reading and meditation retreat are among the list of activities promoted at True Direction. For instance, Wongso organized a three-day Dhamma and Meditation Retreat for True Direction’s members in December 2017 (see Figure 3). The participants followed the eight precepts, practiced sitting and walking meditation, and observed mindfulness eating during the retreat (see True Direction 2017a; True Direction 2017b; True Direction 2017c; True Direction 2017d). Some of the participants shared their meditation experiences, which were recorded and posted online (see Wongso 2017b; Wongso 2017c; Wongso 2017d).

34However, some members of True Direction have recognized the potential of contemporary Buddhist songs in evangelizing youths and young adults, and considered using rock and pop music to launch Buddhist praise and worship services. For example, Ardy Wong, who was one of the vocalists for the song “Dhamma Is My Way,” left True Direction to set up a Buddhist worship band called Sadhu United in April 2016 (Wong 2017). It is no coincidence that the name of the band uncannily resembles that of Hillsong United, which is a Christian worship band that started as a part of the well-known Hillsong charismatic Christian megachurch in Australia (see Connell 2005; Goh 2008). Sadhu United, as told to me by Ardy Wong, plans to compose and perform Buddhist rock songs, and eventually, develop into a Buddhist youth church. The band held its first Buddhist worship concert in March 2018, which attracted several hundred youths from Jakarta and its neighboring cities (SADHU 2018; Sadhu United 2018; Wong 2017). More research would be needed to shed more light on the development and performance of contemporary Buddhist music in present-day Indonesia.

Conclusion

35Music has long been developed for use in liturgical and ritual practices across Buddhist traditions in Asia and beyond. In recent times, Buddhists have composed and performed new forms of Buddhist music, such as hymn, pop music, and rock and roll, to interest and attract a younger audience. This article has examined the development and performance of a form of contemporary Buddhist music, which I coin “Buddhist rock,” by focusing on the case of True Direction in Indonesia. I have presented the ideals and visions of the organization’s founder, Irvyn Wongso, and discussed his motivations behind the establishment of an organization that seeks to propagate the “Dhamma through music.” As the study of True Direction has shown, Indonesian Buddhists are “local geniuses” in the selective adaptation of popular music to propagate the Dhamma in contemporary Indonesian society. True Direction sets Buddhist lyrics to rock and popular music to attract and evangelize a younger audience without interest in Buddhism, hoping that these new forms of religious songs will interest them to learn more about the Buddha’s teachings and convert to Buddhism.

36The production and performance of Buddhist rock music appears to be a double-edged sword for Irvyn Wongso and his True Direction movement. On the one hand, True Direction’s innovative activities and music have successfully contributed to the growth of the organization domestically, and allowed it to receive recognition regionally. On the other hand, some Indonesian Buddhists have criticized True Direction’s attempt to use “unorthodox” music to propagate the Dhamma, and are concerned that Wongso’s Christian-style worship would corrupt young Buddhist minds. I have contended that although True Direction in some ways resembles a Christian church, a closer look at the organization’s activities reveals that contemporary Buddhist songs have not displaced devotional observances that are commonly practiced by Buddhists in contemporary Indonesia. Contrary to the critics’ claims, Wongso uses contemporary Buddhist songs as a means to complement, not replace, meditation practice and scripture reading.

37This study has added a perspective that complements the rich literature on Buddhist music. Specifically, it has considered how new forms of Buddhist music have been adopted as a platform for expressing devotion and spreading the faith in the world’s largest Muslim nation. Given the increasing popularization of contemporary Buddhist music in present-day Indonesia, it is hoped that future research will delve into the details of this religious phenomenon, including the variations across Buddhist organizations and bands, and the reasons for differences between the experiences of different founders, musicians, and followers.